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PESTALOZZI 



His Life, Work, and Influence. 



BY 



HERMANN KRUSI, A.M., 

SON OF PESTALOZZI'S FIRST ASSOCIATE. INSTRUCTOR IN PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION 
AT THE OSWEGO NORMAL AND TRAINING SCHOOL. 



NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO 

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 



THE LIBRARY OF 
CONGRESS, 

Two Copies Received 

FEB 6 «903 

Copyright Entry 

CLASS iXi XXc. No. 

COPY B 






COPYRIGHT, 1875, BY WILSON, HINKLE & CO. 
COPYRIGHT, 1903, BY HERMANN KRUSI. 



RUSI'S PESTALOZZ1. 



DEDICATION 



2To ti)c iiflcmoti) of mg jf&tfytt 

I OFFER THIS TRIBUTE OF GRATITUDE AND LOVE, 

AT THE CENTENARY OF HIS BIRTH, 

MARCH 12th, 1875. 



PEE FACE. 



A N educational movement, which in Europe has led to a com- 
plete reorganization of schools, and has supplied many educators 
of this country with better methods of teaching, deserves to be known 
as an important event in the history of civilization. This movement 
ought to be examined from its very rise and origin, and viewed in a 
light which shows the legitimate connection between its principles 
and their application, and exposes professions and practices that 
have been falsely ascribed to it. 

Pestalozzi's labors are a record of a noble enthusiasm, which was 
communicated to all who came within its influence. It is well, even 
at this advanced stage of material progress, to search for the source 
of this enthusiasm, and to study with care his first feeble attempts 
toward the realization of a great idea. 

The present work was not undertaken without due appreciation of 
its difficulties. The author, in whose memory still remains the testi- 
mony of many of the joersonal friends of Pestalozzi, and who holds 
in his possession records and letters of that period, hitherto unpub- 
lished, considers it a moral duty to give to the public that which 
seems worthy of preservation. An experience of thirty years in 
several Normal Schools of Switzerland, Germany, England, and the 
United States, has given him the privilege of testing the value of 
Pestalozzi's method, and has strengthened his conviction of the pos- 
sibility and the necessity of its application. 



Vlll PREFACE. 

He trusts that many of his pupils, who, in former years, have lent 
an attentive ear to portions of this narrative, will he pleased to hear 
more from their old friend and teacher. 

To those of our unknown friends and colleagues who have heen 
earnestly striving — although in an experimental and fragmentary 
way — to find the correct method of reaching the minds of their 
pupils, we hope the record of similar experiments may afford conso- 
lation or warning, according to the paths they have chosen. 

To those who have never troubled themselves with questions of 
this kind, or who are still floating on a sea of uncertainty, we would 
like to present both oar and rudder by which to guide their boat to 
a safe landing. If this work stimulates inquiring minds to further 
experiments and discoveries in the field of education and its methods, 
or to a more comprehensive and philosophic investigation of the 
subject in all its bearings, our effort will not have been in vain. 

H. KRUSI. 



CONTENTS. 



PART I. — LIFE OF PESTALOZZI. 

CHAPTER I. 
Life at Zurich 13 

CHAPTER II. 
Life at Neuhof .20 

CHAPTER III. 
Life at Stanz 30 

CHAPTER IV. 
Life at Burgdorf 38 

CHAPTER V. 
Life at Yverdon 45 

CHAPTER VI. 
Closing Years of his Life 61 

PART II. — ASSOCIATES OF PESTALOZZI. 

Introduction to Part II 66 

CHAPTER I. 
Hermann Krusi 67 

CHAPTER II. 
Johannes Niederer 79 

CHAPTER III. 

GUSTAV TOBEER ' 87 

CHAPTER IV. 
Johannes Buss 93 

CHAPTER V. 

Assistants of Pestaeozzi — Ramsacer, Schmid, Steiner . . .96 

(ix) 



X CONTENTS. 

PART III.— EXTRACTS FROM THE WRITINGS OF 
PESTALOZZI. 

CHAPTER I. 
Social and Political Subjects , . .108 

CHAPTER II. 
Leonard and Gertrude . .119 

CHAPTER III. 
Christopher and Eltza . 137 

PART IV. — PRINCIPLES AND METHOD OF PESTALOZZI. 

CHAPTER I. 
General View of the Pestalozzian Method . . . . .151 

CHAPTER II. 

Conformity of Pestalozzi's Method to the Natural Order of 

Human Development 159 

CHAPTER III. 

Special Application of Pestalozzi's Method 169 

CHAPTER IV. 

Application of the Method of Pestalozzi (Continued) . • . . 1S1 

PART V. — SPREAD OF THE PESTALOZZIAN SYSTEM. 

CHAPTER I. 
Switzerland 195 

CHAPTER II. 
Germany 202 

CHAPTER III. 
France, Spain, and Russia 218 

CHAPTER IV. 
England 219 

CHAPTER V. 
United State. 228 



PART I. 



LIFE OF PESTALOZZI. 



(in 



CHAPTER I. 

LIFE AT ZURICH 

riTTHE early years of a man's life have great influence in moulding 
_IL his character. As the pilot with a slight turning of his wheel 
changes the direction of the heavily laden ship, so events apparently 
insignificant in themselves, acting upon the impressible nature of a 
child, may affect his entire destiny. It is said of Haydn, that the 
sweet singing' of his mother beside his cradle called forth that talent 
for music which distinguished him in after life. The father of Lin- 
naeus, the distinguished Swedish botanist, used to cover the bed of 
his beloved boy with flowers, thus cultivating in him at that early 
age a love for those fair productions. It is true that talent, a gift 
of the Creator, has never been produced by circumstances; but it is 
also true that powers which might otherwise have slumbered forever, 
have, in many cases, been awakened and led into action by events 
which, in themselves, were trifling. 

The life of the man whose work we are about to examine affords an 
illustration of the effects of early associations in determining character 
and shaping the subsequent events of life. 

Henry Pestalozzi was born on the 12th of January, 1746, at Zurich, 
a toAvn situated in the German part of Switzerland, on the lovely shore 
of a lake of the same name. His ancestors were Italian Protestants, 
who had been obliged to flee from their homes on account of religions 
persecutions, and had found an asylum among the enlightened citizens 
of Zurich — hence his Italian name. His father was a physician, whose 
benevolent and unselfish character prevented him from devoting his 
energies to the acquisition of wealth. 

Henry was but six years old when his father died, and his good 
mother, although not wholly destitute, was obliged to practice the 
utmost economy to sustain the dignity of the family. She withdrew 
from the allurements of society, and consecrated herself to domestic 
duties ; thus giving her children the invaluable blessing of her con- 
stant cai-e and supervision. In this task she was nobly supported by 

(13) 



14 PESTALOZZI. 

a faithful servant, who made the interest of her mistress's family 
her own. Pestalozzi gives the following account of this friend of 
his childhood : 

" When my father was on his death-bed, he thought sorrowfully of 
the great burden which the attendance to household duties and the 
care of the children would throw upon my mother. In these despond- 
ing moments he turned to Barbara, the faithful servant, and begged 
her with fervent entreaty not to leave his family, since otherwise the 
mother must part with some of his children. 

"The noble girl replied, 'I shall never leave your wife, if it should 
please God to take you hence. I will remain with her till death, if 
she wishes me to do so.' " 

She kept her promise, and spent her whole life in the family. Her 
education being limited, she could contribute but little to the mental 
development of the children, of whom there were three, besides Henry; 
but her example of self-sacrifice and of practical morality left indelible 
impressions on the hearts of all. 

"When we wanted to run about the streets for our amusement," 
says Pestalozzi, "she wished us to stay at home, and save our clothing 
and shoes ; and when we found it hard to obey, she told us of our 
good mother, who deprived herself of so many enjoyments for 
our sake." 

The sacrifices of a mother for her children do not show more no- 
bility of soul than was displayed by tin's poor, uneducated girl, who 
gave up all her worldly interest for a family not her own. "Who 
knows," says Biber in his biography of Pestalozzi, "whether this pu- 
rity and strength of character shown by a person of humble rank may 
not have imposed a debt on Pestalozzi, of which he nobly acquitted 
himself in after years by vindicating for the neglected classes of society 
those moral and intellectual rights of which they had been deprived 
by the ignorant pride of their fellow men?" 

Pestalozzi, who was in his youth delicate and sickly, had a nervous 
temperament, winch delighted in mental activity. He says of himself : 
"My feelings and imagination were so predominant that I neglected 
many things. I often committed blunders, which got me into more 
scrapes and troubles than any other child of my age; but I possessed 
a light heart, which made me forget my small sufferings after a few 
hours." These traits of character were fully displayed in his work at 
school, for he never excelled in any of those branches which tax 
merely imitation and memory. He preferred those in which the full 
imagination, originality, and poetry of soul could be brought into play. 
Among other things, he neglected orthography and penmanship, and 



LIFE AT ZURICH. 



15 



his defects in these caused serious inconvenience to him during all his 
after life. In classical studies he cared more for the spirit of the 
writer than for the grammar; more for the thought than the expres- 
sion. It is said, that when a student he made a translation of an 
oration of Demosthenes, which was so excellent that it was afterward 
published in a scientific journal. 

Owing to the awkwardness of his manner and the singularity of his 
character, he passed among his school-fellows as "green," and received 




View of Zurich. 

the nickname "Henry Queer, of Folly ville." He had then and ever 
afterward such perfect faith, that he was often made the butt of jokes 
and the dupe of cunning schemes. He measured the world by his 
own standard, and preferred to be deceived rather than to distrust. 
It is the fate of such confiding souls to be ridiculed for their simplic- 
ity, yet loved for their goodness. 

Considering that the character and method of teaching used in the 
schools at that time was formal and mechanical, it may be inferred 
that it did little toward preparing him for his important mission ; 
yet we do not wish to undervalue the merit of such men as Bodmer 
and Breitinger, who were then among the professors of his native 
city. 

In his visits to his grandfather, a Protestant minister at Hoengg, 
he profited much by the practical lessons of benevolence which he 



16 PESTALOZZI. 

there received. Uniting system with generosity, the old gentleman 
kept a register of all the families of the parish, in which the moral 
character, circumstances, and wants of each were described ; thus, in 
his parochial visits he could not fail to administer advice and con- 
solation according to the needs of each case. In this village, where 
many mills were in active operation, he first witnessed the contrast 
between extreme wealth and abject poverty. He saw the children 
of the village playing before the school-house, with eyes sparkling 
with pleasure and innocence, contented and happy even in their 
rags ; but when he compared them with those of more mature age, 
the victims of overwork and manifold vices, with hollow cheeks and 
sunken eyes, and with the appearance of constant misery upon their 
faces, his young soul was incensed against the selfishness of wealth 
built upon such ruins of health and happiness. What he daily saw 
of the oppression of the people under an aristocratic government, and 
the acts of injustice committed under its sway, nurtured in his breast 
that yearning for liberty and reformation which earned for him after- 
ward the name of a noble-minded patriot and true liberal. 

There are individuals who, from the mildness of their disposition 
and from their aversion to personal quarrels, are commonly considered 
cowards ; and yet these same people display occasionally an energy 
and courage which is in strong contrast to their usual behavior. 
Pestalozzi exhibited such antagonistic qualities. In the year 1755, 
the earthquake which destroyed Lisbon was felt in Switzerland. The 
school-room in which the young Henry was studying was violently 
shaken. The fright was universal. "The teachers," as Pestalozzi 
describes it in his quaint language, "flew down stairs over the heads 
of their boys." After the first terror had subsided, they wished to 
obtain the books, hats, and other property left in the building, but 
all were afraid to enter except " Harry Queer." He boldly per- 
formed the task which his companions refused to do. This boldness 
we find marked in his perhaps incautious opposition to acts of in- 
justice and oppression imposed by some of the dignitaries of the 
state. When only a boy in years, in connection with his celebrated 
cotemporaries, Lavater and Fiissli, he exposed, by means of the press, 
the delinquencies of selfish politicians, thereby rousing their anger, 
and imperiling his future chances for advancement. 

In his choice of a profession, encouraged by his venerable grand- 
father, it seems natural that he should have decided for the ministry. 
His first efforts at preaching, however, proved a failure. Those who 
had witnessed his natural eloquence, proceeding, as it did, from a 
heart deeply impressed with a sense of veneration for all that is pure 



LIFE AT ZURICH. 17 

and holy, ana breathing love and good-will for all mankind, were 
astonished at the cause which he assigned for relinquishing his 
chosen calling — that he stopped short in his sermon and made mis- 
takes in the Lord's Prayer. This arose probably from embarrass- 
ment, which made the young minister forget the sermon which he 
had been obliged to commit to memory. More likely, however, it 
was an exalted idea of the proper qualifications of a clergyman, com- 
pared with his own humble merits, which induced him to exchange 
the study of Theology for that of Law. In doing this he avoided 
Scylla only to fall into Charybdis. We can not imagine that an 
ardent mind like his, desiring to judge all matters according to the 
eternal laws of justice, could be satisfied with expounding human 
laws, when their interpreters had, by quibbles and distortions, adapted 
them to all the iniquities of a corrupt age. If he had explained the 
law according to the noble and fiery impulse of his soul, and not 
according to the dead-letter and stereotyped form, he would have 
expiated his temerity in a political prison, or in some place of ban- 
ishment, His study of the law must, therefore, have produced neg- 
ative results by showing him the insufficiency of human legislation 
to do away with abuses, unless supported by principles of charity and 
justice. 

About this time, 1764, "Emile," a celebrated work on Education, 
by Rousseau, fell into his hands. This led his thoughts into that 
channel from which were to issue immortal ideas for universal educa- 
tion. The principles of that work tended to overturn the prevalent 
notions of methods of teaching. They suggested facts and realities 
instead of empty sounds and superficial definitions — thus appealing 
to common sense. The fact, however, that Rousseau represents his 
ideal pupil, Emile, isolated and without school-companions, could not 
harmonize with the views of a philanthropist like Pestalozzi. 

Bluntschli, an intimate friend, who possessed great forethought, 
when on his death-bed, said to his friend Pestalozzi, "I die, and I 
warn you, if left to yourself, never to embark in any operation which 
might become dangerous to your peace of mind, because of the sim- 
plicity and tenderness of your disposition. Select a quiet and peace- 
ful occupation, and do not enter into any comprehensive undertaking 
without the advice and assistance of a faithful friend." The .suita- 
bleness of this advice will be evident to every one who follows us 
through the vicissitudes of his eventful life. 

Soon after this he visited his uncle, and enjoyed the charms of 
rural life on the shores of Lake Zurich. His stay there, combined 
with the advice of his dying friend, may have matured the new plan 
P. 2. 



18 PESTALOZZI. 

of devoting himself to agriculture, and retiring to the seclusion of a 
country farm. In order to combine practice with theory, he resorted 
to the flourishing farm of a rich proprietor, celebrated for his im- 
proved methods of cultivation, and prepared himself for his new task 
with his usual zeal. But he never acquired the practical skill, and 
power of adapting his means to existing circumstances, which are 
indispensable requisites to the successful practice of farming. 

About this time, also, he formed acquaintance with that noble 
woman, Anna Schulthess, who stood so faithfully by his side during 
the trials of his agitated life. She belonged to a wealthy family of 
Zurich, and the desire of securing a home for her stimulated him to 
unusual exertions. He returned from an agricultural tour with san- 
guine projects about the cultivation of madder as a profitable specu- 
lation. He even induced a mercantile house at Zurich to supply 
him with funds for the purpose. He selected and bought an un- 
cultivated tract of about one hundred acres, situated in the Canton 
of Aargau, near the confluence of the rivers Aar, Reuss, and Lim- 
mat. He named his purchase Neuhof (new farm). There, in 
sight of Hapsburg, the hereditary castle of the Austrian Monarchy, 
he built a house in the Italian style, and began his operations with 
more zeal than skill and foresight. From this place he corresponded 
with the lady above mentioned. The letter, in which he offers her 
his hand and invites her to share his fortunes, is so characteristic of 
the man's honesty and delicacy of feeling that we quote it nearly 
entire : 

"My failings, which appear to me the most important in relation 
to the future, are improvidence, want of caution, and want of that 
presence of mind which is necessary to meet unexpected changes in 
my future prospects. I hope, by continued exertions, to overcome 
them ; but know that I possess them still to a degree, that does not 
allow me to conceal them from the maiden I love. They are faults, 
my dear, which deserve your fullest consideration. I possess yet 
other failings, which must be chiefly attributed to my irritability of 
temper and oversensitiveness. I go to extremes in my praise, as 
well as in my blame ; in my likings, and dislikings. I also enter 
into plans and schemes with such fervor as to exceed proper limits, 
and my general sympathy is such, that I feel unhappy in the misery 
of my fatherland and friends. Direct your whole attention to this 
weakness ; there will be times when my tranquillity and cheerfulness 
of soul will suffer under it. ....... 

"Of my great and very reprehensible negligence in matters of 
etiquette and conventionality, it is useless to speak, as it is too obvi- 



LIFE AT ZURICH. 19 

ous. I am further bound to confess, that I shall place the duties 
toward my fatherland in advance of those to my wife, and that, 
although I mean to be a tender husband, I shall be inexorable even 
to the tears of .my wife, if they should ever try to detain me from 
performing my duties as citizen, to their fullest extent. My wife 
shall be the confidant of my heart, the partner of all my most secret 
counsel. A great and holy simplicity shall reign in my house. One 
thing more, my life will not pass without great and important un- 
dertakings. I shall never refrain from speaking, when the good of 
my country demands it. My whole heart belongs to it, and I shall 
risk every thing to mitigate the misery and need of my countrymen. 

"Reflect well, and decide whether you can give your heart to a 
man with these qualities, and in this condition, and be happy. 

"My dear friend, I love you so tenderly and fervently that this 
confession has cost me much, since it may even take from me the 
hope of winning you. My conscience would have called me a traitor, 
not a lover, if I had withheld from you any fact that might cause 
you future anxiety, or render you miserable. I now rejoice at what 
I have done. If the circumstances in which my duty and my coun- 
try may place me hereafter, should make an end to my yearnings 
and hopes, I shall be conscious at least of not having been treacher- 
ous — of not having attempted to please you by assumed virtue. I 
have deceived you with no chimerical hopes of a happiness that is 
not to be expected; I have concealed from you no danger and no 
sorrow for the future ; I have no cause for self-reproach." 

The lady was worthy of his confidence. Although the candid con- 
fessions of the faults of her lover presented but a thorny prospect of 
life, they could not shake her belief in his disinterested love and 
integrity of character. They were united in the year 1769, Pesta- 
lozzi being then in his 24th year. 

With the noble and intelligent lady, who shared with him her 
ample property, he might have lived in comparative ease and com- 
fort, had he thought only of his own interests. But having the weak- 
ness of considering all the suffering members of the human race as 
belonging to his own family, it may be presumed that his life at 
Neuhof did not pass without dark and bitter experiences. 



CHAPTER II 

LIFE AT NEUHOF. 







View of Neuhof. 

THE dreams of a happy future, of days to be spent in genial and 
profitable employment at the side of a loving wife, were soon dis- 
pelled by cares and disappointments. Pestalozzi's undertaking re- 
quired patience, practical skill, and, above all, order, system, and 
the utmost economy ; but, as has been stated, he was not of a prac- 
tical turn, and not inspired by the expectation of gain and profit. 
Some, professing to be his friends, even accused him, though unjustly, 
of ignorance in selecting a piece of land which, they said, was "unfit 
for cultivation." Although this charge was sufficiently refuted by 
the fact that some years afterward it rose to many times its original 
value, it nevertheless frightened the managers of the mercantile 
(20) 



LIFE AT NEUHOF. 21 

house which had supplied him with money, and induced them to 
withdraw from the undertaking. Thus Pestalozzi was left alone to 
grapple with financial difficulties which beset him on all sides. In- 
stead, however, of concentrating his energies on his own affairs, he 
felt he could only revive his shattered spirits by performing an act 
of charity and devotion. 

The support of the poor is still a question of vital interest to 
the governments of Europe, and it was particularly so during the 
years immediately preceding the French Revolution. At that time, 
the wealth of the country was exclusively in the hands of the priv- 
ileged classes, while the poor toiled for insufficient wages, with no 
thought for the future. They thus became a sure prey for the work- 
house, and a burden upon the community. The introduction of cot- 
ton manufactures had rendered the contrast between employer and 
workman still more striking. This, making money more plenty, 
brought into common use things which had been considered as lux- 
uries ; and the poor, in attempting to keep pace with the rich, grad- 
ually forgot all principles of economy, became intemperate and 
wasteful, and were consequently often reduced to helpless poverty. 

The only relief for this suffering supplied by the Government was 
the introduction of poor-houses, where the innocent child and hard- 
ened sinner, the helpless sick and shiftless vagabond, were herded 
together. They were, in fact, mere feeding establishments, rather 
than homes for the unfortunate, or houses of reform for the wicked. 
The occupants, when dismissed, usually returned to their vicious prac- 
tices, which soon brought them back again. 

It was for this growing evil that the ever-active mind of Pesta- 
lozzi tried to find a remedy. He proposed the establishment of 
schools in which instruction in manual labor should be combined 
with the ordinary mental and moral training. After having advo- 
cated his views publicly, he offered his house and farm for the pur- 
pose of making the experiment. He soon found noble-hearted and 
influential friends who encouraged him in his undertaking, and, in 
177."), we find him at the head of an "Industrial School for the 
Poor," probably the first school of its kind ever conceived, and the 
mother of hundreds now existing on both sides of the Atlantic. 

To make such a seheme a success was certainly no light under- 
taking, and to a man like Pestalozzi it was impossible ; for it is 
obvious that to combine in one person the offices of manager, school- 
master, farmer, manufacturer, and merchant, was beyond the power 
of a man whose enthusiasm and impatient zeal carried him with irre- 
sistible power in pursuit of one grand object, and would not allow 



22 PESTALOZZI. 

him to stop and measure every inch of ground over which he had 
to go. 

The children sent to him were mostly from the refuse of the com- 
munity, and nearly all of them vicious, lazy, and discontented. 
True, they worked on his farm, but with feeble and unskilled hands, 
which conduced little to the improvement of the soil. They were 
also engaged in the weaving of cotton cloth, but the waste in mate- 
rial and the mediocrity of the work more than balanced the profits. 
As a natural consequence of these conditions, Pestalozzi soon became 
involved in debt, from which he was partially relieved by the gener- 
osity of his wife, who sacrificed the greater part of her property in 
his behalf. He struggled a long time in the noble cause of emanci- 
pating the poor, and in the end became poor himself. In the pro- 
cess, however, he made important discoveries in the realm of human 
knowledge, and in the principles which underlie all true processes of 
education — results which have transmuted his individual disappoint- 
ments and failures into blessings for the world. To see truth through 
the vail of one's own errors is already victory. 

In 1780 the school had to be given up. In spite of its apparent 
failure, the feasibility of the plan has since been triumphantly vin- 
dicated by Emanuel von Fellenberg, a friend and cotemporary of 
Pestalozzi, to whom we shall again revert. After five years of in- 
effectual toiling, the latter was left alone, poor and discouraged, an 
object of pity to his friends and of contempt to his detractors. 

The natural buoyancy of his spirits, however, did not allow him to 
give himself up to despair. He says: "In the midst of the wither- 
ing sneers of my fellow-men, the mighty stream of my heart ebbed 
and flowed as it ever had, to stop the sources of misery. My failure 
even showed me the truth of my plans. I was always deceived where 
nobody was; and where all were deceived, there I saw light." 

Let those who have met with financial losses listen to Pestalozzi's 
words of resignation uttered at that time: " The Christian in the 
strength of faith and love considers his property — not as a gift — but 
as a trust, which has been committed to his hand, that he may use 
it for the good of others." Truly he needed this strength from 
above ; for the loss of his funds involved the loss of the most com- 
mon comforts of life. In the midst of this, his noble wife was pros- 
trated with a severe illness, which added greatly to his distress. 

At tins time, from necessity as well as from choice, he began to 
write articles for a Swiss journal, and to publish books in which lie 
appealed to the public to bestow their attention upon some of the 
most sacred interests of humanity. From 1780 to 1798 were pub- 



LIFE AT NEUHOF. 23 

lished the following books: "The Evening Hours of a Hermit;" 
"Leonard and Gertrude;" "Christopher and Eliza;" "Legislation 
and Infanticide;" "Figures to my Spelling-Book;" "Investigations 
on the Course of Nature in the Development of the Human Race." 

Although these writings are all distinguished by originality and 
thought, and inspired by philanthropy, not one of them has made 
a greater impression and acquired more celebrity than "Leonard 
and Gertrude" — a popular tale, the scenes of which are so fresh 
and life-like that they at once enlist the feelings of the reader by 
presenting a picture of exalted virtue in the midst of crime and 
error. The circumstances to which this work owes its origin are not 
without interest. Fiissli, a book-seller of Zurich and friend of Pes- 
talozzi, once mentioned, in conversation with his brother, the artist, 
the sad condition of the philanthropic dreamer at Neuhof. Fiissli, 
the painter, who was turning over the leaves of a humorous pamph- 
let, suddenly interrupted his brother by asking who was the author 
of that satire. On being told, " Pestalozzi," he said, "The man has 
talent and originality, and can help himself by writing books." The 
book-seller thereupon urged Pestalozzi to write a popular tale. The 
latter, without any positive plan, composed some pieces in imitation 
of the tales of Marmontel. But on touching the question of domes- 
tic education, the subject seemed to grow and expand, until, throwing 
his whole heart into the theme, and drawing largely from the treas- 
ures of his exf>erience, he produced this immortal work. Such was 
the sensation which followed its publication that the Government of 
Berne decreed him a gold medal. This he w T as obliged to turn into 
cash to supply his family with the necessaries of life. 

The success of a book even in our more enlightened age is not 
always owing to its merits. It may be admired for the beauty of 
its style, for the truthfulness of its scenes and pictures which excite 
feelings of pleasure and approbation, or arouse sympathy and indig- 
nation ; but should the author appeal for aid in correcting errors 
and in relieving distress, a deaf ear is turned to his entreaties, and 
his importunities are considered an annoyance and a bore. This, 
Pestalozzi experienced with his work, and complains that the highest 
encouragement he received from influential persons was this: "If 
there were many mothers like Gertrude, many school-masters like 
Glhlphi, many magistrates like Arner, the world would be in a 
better condition." 

From his inability to buy the necessary paper, the story of "Leon- 
ard and Gertrude" was written on the blank leaves of an old account- 
book. Whenever he added any thing to the text he patched little 



2-4 PESTALOZZI. 

scraps of paper upon the sheet, which, combined with his illegible 
handwriting, must have driven the printers nearly to despair. The 
receipts from the book did not add much to his wealth, as will be 
seen by the publisher's conditions, which we add for the consolation 
of poor authors. He was to receive three dollars per sheet, with 
twenty dollars additional if the work should reach a second edition.' 

His extreme poverty, however, resulted chiefly from his ignorance 
of the ways of the world and from his self-forgetting benevolence. 
The following anecdote illustrates both these characteristics. When 
in great need he once borrowed from a friend one hundred dollars, 
and on his way home he met a poor peasant wringing his hands in 
great distress. On being asked the reason of his grief, he answered, 
with many tears, that " his house had been consumed by fire, and 
he was without shelter and home." This was too much for the feel- 
ings of kind-hearted Pestalozzi. Forgetting his own errand, he put 
all the borrowed money into the hand of the peasant, and hurried 
off to his own desolate home. Arriving there without money and 
telling his story, his gentle wife asked whether he knew the name 
of the fortunate receiver. " I do not know the man," he said, "but 
he looked so poor and honest that I am sure he must be good." 
When the peasant in his turn was asked the name of his benefactor, 
he answered: "I do not know. He looked odd and slovenly, but 
had such a benevolent air about him that I am sure he must be a 
good man." Such a coincidence of opinion and absence of flattery 
between persons unknown to each other deserve mention. 

In his domestic relations Pestalozzi was exceedingly fortunate — 
finding there repose in his weariness, sympathy in his philanthropic 
schemes, and consolation in his failures. Of his wife we have already 
spoken, and regret that we can not do full justice to her worth. 
Born of wealthy parents and marrying against their wishes a man 
who they declared would never be able to support her, she joyfully 
exchanged her worldly treasures for those which came from the rich 
and overflowing heart of her husband. She was a woman of more 
than ordinary intelligence and culture, and from the diary which 
she kept for many years have been taken many interesting details 
of the private life of her husband and herself. 

From Pestalozzi's diary, kept during the early part of his life at 
Neuhof, we learn that, in addition to his other labors, he bestowed 
much attention upon the wants, emotions, and acts of his little son 
Jacob, who was born in 1770. 

In his eagerness to develop the mind of his child, we fear the lov- 
ing father was too impatient to wait for natural growth, since he 



LIFE AT NEUHOF. 25 

often mentions the "inattention of Jacobli,* and his aversion to useful 
knowledge." This result, however, he had the justice to ascribe to 
his own want of skill in presentation, rather than to any natural 
distaste for knowledge on the part of the child. The following is 
an instance : After a futile attempt to make the little boy repeat the 
names of numbers, before the idea of number had been presented, 
he exclaims, "Oh, why have I committed the folly of naming to him 
words without meaning ; of letting him say three without first showing 
him the idea of two in all its bearings and applications? It is so 
difficult to come back from error, and so easy to walk in the simple 
paths of truth." 

In giving the child object-lessons he does not spare any trouble. 
He leads the little fellow along the bank of a brook, and is delighted 
with the childish remark: "The water comes running after," for 
which he teaches him to substitute the expression, "The water runs 
down hill." On his return he develops the idea of "up hill." In 
one passage of his diary he mentions an experience, not uncommon 
with parents, of finding that his child asked for certain things under 
a pretext quite different from the true reason. For instance, Jacobli 
asks his father to carry him to the barn so that he might there recite 
his lesson, when he really wanted to see the horse. Another passage 
shows how ready Pestalozzi ever was to receive instruction and to 
profit by it, though expressed in homely phrase by his man-of-all- 
work, Klaus. When speaking to him of the excellent memory of 
his son; "It is good enough," Klaus replied, "but love and courage 
for learning are still better. Do you ever think of that, master?" 
"O Klaus," answered the candid master, " all learning is not worth 
a straw, if joy and courage are lost thereby." 

These seemingly insignificant scraps from a diary are important 
merely as showing from what sources Pestalozzi derived his deep in- 
sight into the nature and mind of childhood. This son, his only 
child, upon whom he lavished so much love, and with whom he took 
so much pains, died in 1801, at the age of 31 years. 

The still more important lessons on the moral and practical welfare 
of domestic life he learned from his excellent wife, and from a noble, 
though uneducated, woman, who was his housekeeper for forty years, 
and whose useful and unostentatious life he immortalized in his char- 
acter of "Gertrude." In the following passage from this work, he 
expresses his opinion of the influence of such a woman: "Thus does 
God's sun walk on its path from morning till evening; the eye does 

*Little Jacob. 



26 PESTALOZZI. 

not perceive any of its steps, nor the ear hear its course, but at its 
setting, we know that it will reappear to warm the earth until its 
fruits are ripe. This great mother * hovering over the earth is the 
image of Gertrude, and of every wife who raises the domestic circle 
( Wohndube) to a sanctuary of God, and she deserves heaven tor her 
blessed influence on the beloved ones in her care." 

From the sanctuary of the peaceful household we will now pass to 
more stormy scenes of historical action, which, grave and moment- 
ous as they were for the fate of nations, had also great influence on 
the fate of Pestalozzi. A fiery patriot like him could not remain 
indifferent to that ferment of ideas, which, as the tremulous mur- 
murs of the earth that precede, a volcanic explosion, heralded the 
first French Revolution. Society was hastening to its dissolution, 
especially in France, and every sound of freedom that arose between 
the Pyrenees and the Jura found a ready echo in the Alps. Many 
parts of Switzerland were writhing under a tyranny not less vexa- 
tious because conducted on a smaller scale by a number of petty 
despots. 

In order that American readers may better understand the situation 
of affairs at that time, it must be stated that Switzerland, although 
mainly a Republic, consisting of thirteen free and independent can- 
tons, owned yet some undivided territory. This section was subject 
to the sway of one or more of those cantons, and governed by a 
bailiff, whose ideas of political economy seemed to be to make him- 
self rich at the expense of his subjects. Moreover, the cities even 
in the independent cantons possessed great privileges in taxation, 
representation, and commerce, over the inhabitants of the country. 
The liberty of the press was often rudely assailed, and the fact that 
Pestalozzi gave to one of his publications the harmless title of " Fig- 
ures to my Spelling-Book," while, in the form of fables, it contained 
keen and biting allusions to political matters, seems to indicate a 
state of affairs not altogether unknown under despotic governments. 

An ardent admirer of the ideas of Rousseau and other liberals, 
Pestalozzi naturally embraced the side of the oppressed. He saw 
the yawning gulf toward which the tyrants were rushing in blind 
madness, and could not but rejoice to hear the popular voice rising 
against them. 

The events immediately preceding the bloody French Revolution 
at last roused to action the pent-up feelings of indignation. A 



"The German word for sun, "Sonne, 1 ' is feminine, which explains the alle- 
gorical use of sun as a female. 



LIFE AT NEUHOF. 27 

mighty power was overthrown by the popular fury, and its venal 
supporters, the aristocracy, either perished or were exiled. The guil- 
lotine worked day and night. The lower classes of France and of 
some other countries, emancipated from obedience to their hereditary 
rulers, set at naught even the rules of justice and humanity, and 
considered liberty permission to indulge in violent passions. Hence 
the people soon engaged in a war of self-destruction, at which the 
better part of humanity shuddered. 

Pestalozzi's mind was too clear and far-seeing not to note the 
danger that threatened when liberty thus degenerated into license, 
and the scepter of power was wielded by those who could not govern 
themselves. In his younger days he had cherished the idea that the 
welfare of the people could be obtained merely by the improvement 
of outward circumstances ; but he now saw and felt the important 
truth, that, for man to be truly free, his moral nature must be de- 
veloped and cultivated. The same idea is expressed in the precept 
of Jesus: "Seek ye first the kingdom of God and his righteousness, 
and all these things shall be added unto you." 

After this, Pestalozzi expected but little good from mere political 
changes, unless they were accompanied by the elevation of the 
masses, and his Avhole heart impelled him in the direction in which 
this could best be accomplished. Some of his friends and a few 
members of the Government, who, like himself, considered education 
the main pillar of the state, were willing to procure him an influ- 
ential position ; but it was left to Providence to indicate the particu- 
lar spot where he was destined to commence his immortal labors. 

The year 1798 saw Switzerland the battle-ground between the 
French, Austrian, and Russian armies. They made the mountain 
walls echo and reecho the thunder of their cannon, and tinged the 
Alpine snows and the waters of lovely lakes with the blood of the 
slain. The Swiss were compelled to take sides with one or the other 
of the contending powers. The influence of France was very great; 
but her centralizing tendencies were odious to the old republics 
around the lake of Luzerne, cherishing, as they did, their national 
independence with the tenacity of habit and the pride of old rec- 
ollections. 

After France had vanquished the ill -organized resistance of the 
Swiss, who were divided among themselves, they forced upon the 
cantons a new constitution, modeled after that proclaimed by the 
Directorial Government of France. By this constitution the power 
of the larger cantons was diminished, while several of the smaller ones 



28 PESTALOZZI. 

were consolidated into one, and deprived of a portion of their demo- 
cratic institutions. 

In most places the people accepted their fate with silent and unre- 
sisting sorrow. The small canton of Nidwalden, situated at the 
southern extremity of Lake Luzerne, and bounded by high mount- 
ains, alone sought to maintain its independence. Enraged at this 
opposition to its plans, the French Government sent its legions against 
the unfortunate valley. The brave mountaineers rallied for the de- 
fense of their homes, and it was only after great losses that the French 
were able to force their way through the mountain passes. In re- 
venge for the resistance, the invaders commenced a horrible massacre. 
The whole region seemed doomed to destruction. Men, and often 
women and children, were shot. Every village, except Stanz, was 
burned, and this one .was only spared at the intercession of a French 
officer. 

The news of these atrocities produced a deep sensation of mingled 
indignation and pity throughout Switzerland, and the Government in- 
stituted means to save the remnant of the unfortunate people from 
starvation. 

In Pestalozzi's soul, compassion was associated with an overpowering 
desire to do something for the sufferers — especially for the orphaned 
children, who now, more than ever, needed the healing remedy of a 
sound education. His resolution was at once taken ; and, without 
delay, he made an offer to the Government to go to that desolate 
valley, there to collect and instruct the poorest of the children. 
His offer was accepted, and henceforth his vocation of school-master 
was fixed. 

The Helvetic Government, although in some respects the tool of 
France, yet counted among its members men who would be an honor 
to any state — men who had studied the wants and necessities of the 
people, and who were earnestly devoted to the task of finding a 
remedy for existing evils. Of these men, Le Grand, President of the 
Council, and Stapfer, Minister of Arts and Sciences, deserve the high- 
est place. They were staunch and unflinching supporters of Pestalozzi, 
and their conduct is in strong contrast to that of others, who were 
accustomed to judge character only by outward success. 

The report submitted by Stapfer to his colleagues in regard to Pes- 
talozzi's mission to Stanz displays the views of a wise statesman, as 
well as of an intelligent friend of education. He says : " Permit me, 
Citizen Directors, to remind you on this occasion of the principal 
points in the plan of Pestalozzi ; such as are indicated in his classical 
book, 'Leonard and Gertrude.' He unites practical application with 



LIFE AT NET7HOF. 29 

elementary instruction; develops and fortifies early habits of indus- 
try, and bestows his attention upon all subjects which will facilitate 
the labor of the working classes. A good education must enable the 
pupil to secure for himself, by his principles, his sentiments, and his 
actions, a path to happiness. It brings into play all the faculties of 
man, and takes advantage of every thing, which, from his earliest 
years, may have an influence on his development and success in the 
different positions and circumstances in which he may find himself 
placed. . . . Pestalozzi's first care is directed toward the 

physical wants of the child. He habituates him to all kinds of work, 
in order that no effort, no pains, which his future vocation may im- 
pose, shall be too much for him. He wishes to keep his pupils from 
all useless and damaging wants and desires, and to impart to them a 
sincere love of simplicity and a contempt for all that is superfluous 
and enervating. He requires them to practice rural and domestic 
occupations, in order to insj^ire them with love for order and an 
activity directed toward the useful. The pupils, by seeing the re- 
sults of their work, learn to esteem themselves, and the parents have 
before their eyes an example of a well-organized, household and of 
moral education. .......... 

To the question, 'Is the plan of Citizen 
Pestalozzi contrary to the unity or uniformity of a system of public 
education?' I would reply, if the project succeeds, it must be consid- 
ered a Model School, and be productive of others of the same kind. 
If it does not succeed, it will at least have supplied new, interesting, 
and useful experience." 

In this, as in other addresses of the same kind, the warm-hearted 
Stapfer alludes to Pestalozzi as "that grand, unappreciable man, 
whose ardor for the improvement of his fellow-man, age has not been 
able to dampen, and whose heart ever burns with a sacred fire for 
the human race." 

Stapfer portrayed the man correctly. Faithful to the declaration 
made in the letter to his beloved, which we have already quoted, 
and forgetting his own misery and wants, in his compassion for the 
destitute orphans of Stanz, he entered upon his new work with zeaL 
and enthusiasm. 



CHAPTER III. 
LIFE AT STANZ. 

PESTALOZZI'S resolution to go to Stanz seems to have been one 
of those inspired acts which are not weighed in the scale of reason. 
The inhabitants of the town were governed by priests, from whom 
little help and sympathy could be expected. Add to this the gen- 
eral devastation of the country, the want of food, shelter, and other 
necessaries of life, the absence of school furniture and apparatus, 
and the reader can judge whether it offered many inducements to a 
man fifty-three years of age, of frail physical constitution, and weary 
from disappointment and care. The saying of a philosopher, that 
"great ideas spring from the heart," was applicable to him. It was 
love that urged him to ponder over the means of helping his poorer 
brethren ; love that enabled him to persevere in his efforts under the 
most perplexing difficulties. When speaking of his resolution, he 
says : "I knew not exactly what I could accomplish, but I knew 
what I wished — to die or to carry out my plans." 

The Government assigned him for his school an empty convent, in 
which some alterations were indispensable. When it became known 
that the convent was open, even before the kitchen, school, and bed- 
rooms were completed, poor orphan children flocked thither in large 
numbers. The appearance of these ragged, neglected little ones 
would have been revolting to almost any other man ; but Pestalozzi 
saw before him immortal souls which he might save from the sloth 
of mental and moral perdition. Assisted by his housekeeper, he 
wisely began his task by inculcating the necessity of cleanliness and 
order. He then commenced his educational work with an amount 
of vigor, self-forgetfulness, and enthusiasm, such as the world has 
seldom seen combined in the soul of one frail mortal. 

The government of the school, even when punishment was neces- 
sary, was chiefly based on love and the power of good example. His 
own touching account gives the best idea of this: "I was among 
them from morning till evening. Every thing tending to benefit 
(30) 



LIFE AT STANZ. 



31 



body and soul, I administered with my own hand. Every assistance, 
every lesson they received, came from me. My hand was joined to 
theirs, and my smile accompanied theirs. They seemed out of the 
world and away from Stanz ; they were with me and I with them. 
We shared food and drink. I had no household, no friends, no serv- 
ants around me; I had only them. Was their health good, I 
enjoyed it with them ; were they sick, I stood at their side. I slept 




View of S.tanz. 

in their midst. I was the last to go to bed and the first to rise. I 
prayed with them, and taught them in bed till they fell asleep." 

We see by this that his chief aim was to carry out one of his 
most cherished ideas — to impart to the school the character of a 
family. Like a good mother, he relied less on words than on ac- 
tions, to enlist the feelings and excite the sympathy of the children. 
The fact that he worked under less favorable circumstances than 
most mothers have to encounter, only tends to increase our admira- 
tion for his wonderful insight into the mainsprings of human actions, 
and for the motives which stimulated him. He talked but little 
about abstruse questions of morality or religion ; but he never neg- 
lected an opportunity to excite a religious emotion or to encourage 
moral actions. 

The following incident will illustrate his method of procedure : In 
1799 the neighboring town of Altorf was consumed by fire. Pesta- 



32 PESTALOZZI. 

lozzi, hearing the news, assembled his children and gave to them a 
description of the sad calamity. He called their attention particu- 
larly to the many children left homeless, and a prey to hunger and 
want. He then reminded them of their own condition some weeks 
before. After thus exciting -the sympathy of the children, he asked: 
"Shall I not try to get permission of the Government to receive 
some of these unfortunate ones into your home?" The children cried, 
as with one voice, "Yes, yes." Not wishing to take advantage of 
the first impulses of their feelings, he appealed to their reason. 
"Remember, children," he said, "food and money are scarce; only 
little is given for your support. If they come, it will be necessary 
to have your rations diminished, and* to share your beds with them. 
Now, choose." The children cried, as before, " Let them come, 
Father, we will willingly share with them all we have." 

Such scenes must have been to Pestalozzi a reward for all his har- 
assing care ; for they showed the power of love and faith, and the 
importance of an education which quickens sympathy and exhibits 
its hallowing influence in action. 

With a heart large enough to embrace them all, he stood in their 
midst like the father of a family. Under his loving instruction, his 
pupils became to him affectionate children, and to each 'other, broth- 
ers and sisters ; and, as in a Avell-ordered household, each was 
intent upon serving the interests of all. This spirit was particularly 
manifest during the hours of instruction, when you might see chil- 
dren teaching other children — not in the spirit of little despots, as is 
too often manifest in schools of this character, but in the spirit of 
kindness and forbearance. "If ever so small a child," says Pesta- 
lozzi, " knew a few letters more than others, he seated himself between 
two of them, embraced them with his little arms, and taught them 
that of which they were ignorant." 

Hitherto we have dwelt principally on the means and effects of the 
moral training, which, if rightly understood, is the basis of sound 
intellectual growth. It can not be denied that love and respect for 
the teacher and interest in the thing presented, combined with peace 
and order, are the most powerful incentives to intellectual effort. 
We have always admired the advice given to teachers by Horace 
Mann, that, "in case of any disorder in school, or any act calculated 
to disturb the feelings of any portion of the class, or of the teacher, 
the teaching should be suspended for the moment. It is better to 
leave the thread of ideas interrupted than to suffer any wheel of the 
moral machinery to get rusty." In schools where an opposite plan 
is followed, and where the feelings and moral sentiments are sacri- 




P. 3. 



84 PESTALOZZI. 

ficed for mere intellectual attainments, we may be sure that the in- 
tellectual structure itself will rest on a frail and unsafe foundation. 

Pestalozzi discarded all mental operations which did not aim to 
elicit truth. He had no respect for those intellectual feats which 
consist chiefly in a skillful handling of words, and are not based on 
the children's own observation and experience. 

Very appropriately, says Biber: "As Pestalozzi based all matters 
of discipline on the primary motive of all virtue, love; so in matters 
of instruction, he started with the source of all knowledge, the 
elements. 

"He did not burden their minds with the memory of words whose 
meaning they did not understand ; but he led them gradually to the 
discovery of truths, which, in the nature of things, they could never 
forget. Instead of building up a dead mind and a dead heart on 
the ground of a dead letter, he drew forth life to the mind and life 
to the heart from the fountain of life within, and thus established a 
new art of education, in which to follow him, requires, on the part of the 
teacher, not a change of system, but a change of state." 

His school-room was totally unprovided with books, and his appa- 
ratus consisted of himself and his pupils. He was forced to adapt 
these means to the accomplishment of his end. He directed his 
whole attention to those natural elements which are found in the 
mind of every child He taught numbers instead of figures ; living 
sounds instead of dead characters ; deeds of faith and love instead 
of abstruse creeds ; substance instead of shadow ; realities instead of 
signs. 

In many particulars, Pestalozzi's work would not appear to advan- 
tage in the light of the present time. Its excellence consisted chiefly 
in his power to reach the hearts of the children, and to stimulate 
them to mental exertion. This power came, in part, from his own 
personality, and, in part, from the means which he employed to 
attract their attention and direct their thoughts. 

The school, however, lacked the order and system which are con- 
sidered indispensable to success at the present day. These deficien- 
cies were excusable, considering that Pestalozzi was the sole teacher 
of eighty pupils, bound to no course of -study, and entirely without 
experience in regard to the arrangement of labor and time. His 
main object seemed to be to ascertain the kind of instruction 
most needed by the children, and how it could be based upon 
their previous knowledge. When he saw them interested, he pur- 
sued the same topic for hours, and left it only when the interest 
flagged or the point was attained. To keep up the interest, he fre- 



LIFE AT STANZ. 35 

quently varied the form of the exercise, treating the subject now in 
a playful, now in a practical, manner, and left off only to resume it 
at a more favorable time. They had no lessons to commit, but they 
had always something to ' investigate. They gained little positive 
knowledge, but their love of knowledge and power of acquiring it 
increased daily. 

At the end of a single term the result of this course of instruction 
was manifestly great. The children had improved so much, both phys- 
ically and morally, that Pestalozzi says: "They seemed entirely differ- 
ent beings from those I had received six months before, neglected, 
ragged, and filthy." But yet he stood entirely alone. There was no 
admiring school committee to sound his praises ; not even one to visit 
his school on days of examination, or when special preparation had 
been made for their reception ; no brother pedagogue to give him 
countenance and advice ; and no parents who fully appreciated the 
good work done, or were grateful for the kindness and self-sacrifice 
which prompted it. On the contrary, the people were both super- 
stitious and ignorant, and felt a great distrust for the heretic teacher, 
who, they feared, might lead their children to perdition. 

In many respects his experience here was a repetition of that at 
Xeuhof, where he had to deal with the very lowest classes of the com- 
munity. To show the trials to which he was subjected, and the pa- 
tience and forbearance which he was obliged to exercise continually, 
we will quote his own words. " Mothers who supported themselves 
by open beggary, would, upon visiting the establishment, find some cause 
of discontent, and take their children away, because 'they would not 
be Avorse off at home.' Sundays especially, fathers, mothers, and other 
relatives came to the house, and, taking the children aside in some 
corner or in the street, elicited complaints of every kind, and either 
took them away or left them peevish and discontented. Many were 
brought to the asylum with no intention but to have them clothed; 
which being done, they were removed without any apparent reason. 
Others required- pay for leaving their children, in order to compensate 
for the diminished produce of their beggary. Others bargained for 
how many days in the week they could take them out for begging 
errands. Such proposals being rejected, they went away indignant, 
declaring that unless their terms were accepted they would soon 
take away their •children. Several months passed in this constant 
fluctuation of pupils, which rendered the adoption of any settled 
plan of discipline or instruction utterly impossible." 

When Henry Zschokke, at that time Commissioner of the Helvetic 
Government, and afterward a celebrated novelist, visited Stanz in the 



36 PESTALOZZI. 

spring of 1789, he stated, that "nobody kept company with poor Pes- 
talozzi, and, with a few honorable exceptions, he was considered 
either a good-natured fool or a poor devil, who was compelled, by 
indigence, to perform the menial office of school-master." 

What was it, then, that kept his spirit alive, and seemed to impart 
to his very body the buoyancy and strength of youth? It must have 
been the consciousness of doing good, and a vision of the eternal prin- 
ciples of education, combined with an unbounded confidence in God 
and the possibility of improving the human race. Let those who now 
witness the mighty changes that have taken place in education pay 
grateful tribute to the man who first took arms against the hollow sys- 
tems of the old school routine, and who showed the path to those de- 
lightful regions of thought, in whose well-tilled soil rich harvests will 
ever be reaped by the patient laborer. 

To the philanthropist and friend of education Stanz will always be a 
hallowed spot, exhibiting, as it does, the picture of this venerable 
teacher sitting among the outcast children, animated by the very spirit 
of Christ, and by a great idea which not only filled his own soul, but 
also inspired those who witnessed his labors. 

While Pestalozzi was thus endeavoring to heal the wounds which 
ignorance, neglect, and the evils of war had inflicted upon an unfortu- 
nate people, the contending armies of Europe still made Switzerland 
their battle-ground. More than once the rumor that the enemy were 
approaching the secluded valley of Nidwalden, had caused such fright 
and alarm that the inhabitants of Stanz and the children of the school 
fled in all directions. 

In June, 1799, a French company, after having met with a reverse, 
appeared in reality, and, without ceremony, took possession of the con- 
vent which Pestalozzi had hitherto occupied. As there was no appeal 
from force, he relinquished his labors, and, after having supplied 
his beloved j^^pils with clothing from the remaining part of the fund 
granted for that purpose, he took leave of them amidst tears and' sobs. 
His own feelings are best expressed in a letter to his friend Gessner: 
" Imagine with what sensations I left Stanz. Thus might feel a ship- 
wrecked sailor, who sees land after weary and restless nights, and draws 
the breath of coming life, but is again thrown into the immensity of 
space. This was my own condition. Think of the fullness of my 
heart, the greatness of my plans, my success and my ruin, the trem- 
bling of my disordered nerves, and my mute agony." 

After this painful event Pestalozzi repaired to the rural home of his 
faithful and sympathizing friend Zehender, in the Canton of Berne, 
Avhere he spent some time in regaining his shattered health. In the 



LIFE AT STANZ. 37 

immediate neighborhood, upon a plateau above the beautiful lake of 
Thun, are the baths of Gurnigel. The scenery in this region is among 
the finest in Europe. The eye looks down upon a wide plain strewn 
with hamlets and villages, and bounded by the snow-capped summits 
of the Bernese Alps, which Byron calls, 

"Those palaces of nature, whose vast walls 
Have pinnacled in cloud their snowy scalps, 
And throned Eternity in icy halls 
Of cold sublimity, where forms and falls 
The avalanche, that thunderbolt of snow." 

Respecting this visit, Pestalozzi says: "I looked with admiration 
from the height of Gurnigel upon the immense valley, with its mount- 
ain border ; and yet I thought, at this moment, more of the badly 
instructed people it contained than of the beautiful scenery. I could 
not, nor would I, live without accomplishing my aim." 

With this determination, he called upon some of his influential 
friends and consulted them in regard to his future prospects. He 
was poor and emaciated, and yet as enthusiastic and determined as 
ever. His experiment at Stanz, though apparently a failure, he con- 
sidered a success, as his experience there had demonstrated the practi- 
cability of his principles. His only demand was for employment in a 
school, no matter how low its grade. A friend, hearing of a vacancy 
in a school at Burgdorf, a small town in the Canton of Berne, Pesta- 
lozzi immediately set out for that town to secure the place, if possible. 



CHAPTER IV. 

LIFE AT BUKGDORF. 

THE situation for which Pestalozzi applied, and which he obtained, 
was that of assistant in a school, which, according to the exclusive 
notions of the time, was set apart for the children of parents not citi- 
zens of the place. As these people generally belonged to the poorer 
classes, they could not afford to pay a good school-teacher; and the 
sum which Pestalozzi received in his new situation was very small. 
Even in this humble and subordinate position, he was not permitted to 
labor in peace. The head master perceiving that Pestalozzi succeeded 
in gaining the attention and affection of the pupils in a greater degree 
than he, set about devising means of ridding himself of so dangerous 
a rival. He informed the patrons that his assistant did not know how 
to read and spell correctly, and that he was opposed to teaching the 
Heidelberg Catechism. There was some truth in the former accusation, 
as Pestalozzi very candidly confessed, and a great deal in the latter, 
since he never was a friend of that dogmatic machinery by which sen- 
timents are put in the mouth of the child, of the meaning of which he 
has not the slightest idea. His apparent delinquency in this latter 
point proved fatal to his interests, and he was expelled from his hum- 
ble situation. 

By no means discouraged, he applied for occupation in a school where 
children from five to ten years of age were taught by an old dame. 
His application was successful, probably because it was believed that 
he could do less mischief with little children than with older ones ; and 
because the old lady would thus be relieved of the labor of teaching. 

hi teaching reading he adopted the phonetic method, in which the 
sound and not the name of the letter is given — an innovation, effected 
not without opposition. The results obtained caused him great delight, 
which was marred only by the fear that he might again be removed 
through the prejudices of the parents and authorities. This time, how- 
ever, he was agreeably disappointed. The honor of giving the first 
public testimony of the value of Pestalozzi's educational principles 

(38) 



JJFE AT BURGDORF. 



39 



belongs to the school committee of Burgdorf. It was stated in this 
report: "He has shown what powers are hidden in the feeble child, 
and in what manner they can be developed. The pupils have made 
astonishing progress in some branches, thereby proving that every child 
is capable of doing something if the teacher is able to draw out his 
talent, and awaken the powers of his mind in the order of their nat- 
ural development." 

This testimony refers, not only to exercises in spelling, but to all 
those by which Pestalozzi cultivated the observation and ingenuity of 



4 mim. -';v-4S#a 














View of Burgdorf. 

his pupils. Some of these — as, object-lessons — were entirely out of 
the range of the ordinary school routine. In making such innovations, 
Pestalozzi had little difficulty with the children, for they always enjoy 
such teaching ; but it was hard to convince the parents that their chil- 
dren could profit by any instruction that had not the scholastic character 
to which they had been accustomed. A man once said to him, " Why, 
these exercises are so simple that my wife and I could give them at 
home." " The very thing you ought to do," replied Pestalozzi, delighted 
to have an opportunity to speak in behalf of domestic education. 

In the year 1800, occurred an important event, which drew Pestalozzi 
out of his isolated position, and surrounded him with friends and associ- 
ates, who, identifying their work with his, must be considered indis- 
pensable links to his well-earned reputation. 



40 PESTALOZZI. 

Hermann Kriisi,* a young man engaged in the village school of Gais, 
ApjDenzell, was induced by a noble-minded man, Fischer of Berne, 
to take charge of a number of poor boys of that canton, and transfer 
them to Burgdorf. The parents of these children, on account of the 
embarrassment caused by the war, were too poor to educate or even 
support them; therefore, an appeal was made to those who were less 
unfortunate. The inhabitants of Burgdorf kindly received these little 
waits, and Kriisi remained as their teacher. 

Up to the time of his arrival at Burgdorf, Kriisi had never heard 
of Pestalozzi, but an acquaintance soon sprang up between them. 
After the death of Fischer, Pestalozzi, who had been devising the plan 
of starting a private school, made the proposition that they two should 
unite their schools, and enter into partnership. The proposition was 
accepted, and a school opened. 

Pestalozzi and Kriisi soon found that, with differences of character, 
they were kindred in heart and purpose. They occupied the castle of 
the town, a huge old building, which stood on a rocky eminence and 
had formerly served as a residence for the governor of the district. 
The changes attending the revolution, by abolishing the office of gov- 
ernor, had made the building useless to the town, and it was offered to 
Pestalozzi rent free. He was left to his own efforts to supply furniture 
and to attract pupils ; but he soon gained the confidence of the people, 
and his principles began to command the attention of enlightened men. 

As the number of pupils increased, and more assistance was needed, 
Tobler and Xiederer, friends of Kriisi, and citizens of the mountain- 
ous canton Appenzell, joined the little band to teach the subjects, 
Religion, History, and Geography. Still later Buss, a self-taught man, 
from Wiirtemberg, was employed to teach Form and Drawing. 

The disinterested and enthusiastic manner in which these young men 
rallied, like disciples, around their venerable friend and master, can 
only be explained by their conviction that they Avere instruments in an 
immortal work. For some time the only reward they received was the 
approval of their own consciences; for they voluntarily resigned their 
salaries, in order to relieve Pestalozzi from the pecuniary embarrass- 
ment under which he labored. 

A passage from one of Kriisi's letters, written at that time, contains 
an almost prophetic conviction of success: "Our work advances. The 
seed of a better instruction, conforming to the faculties of the human 
mind, has germinated. It will bear fruit such as no one, not even 
Pestalozzi himself, dares to anticipate." This enthusiasm manifested 



:: Father of the author. 



LIFE AT BURGDORF. 41 

by teachers and pupils was, no doubt, one of the main causes of 
success ; and this success made the Institution widely known, espe- 
cially throughout Switzerland and Germany. 

The assistance Avhich Pestalozzi received from his younger teachers 
enabled him to prepare systematic courses of instruction in the differ- 
ent branches of study. Kriisi worked out exercises in Mental Arith- 
metic and Language; Buss in Geometry and Drawing; Tobler in Ge- 
ography ; while Xiederer tried to analyze the principles of the method, 
free it from its experimental character, and raise it to the dignity of a 
great fact worthy of the attention of governments and legislatures. 

These courses of study were tested by two years of trial in their 
school, carefully revised by Pestalozzi, and then published. They did 
not, however, achieve the result which their authors had hoped. Those 
teachers who were not imbued with the spirit of the method could not 
make use of the exercises, however systematically arranged ; while those 
who possessed the right principle recpiired neither the book nor the 
exercises, but were able to frame a course for themselves. Even at 
the present day, the books which allow the teacher avIio is able to use 
them well the most liberty, are not those which obtain the patronage 
of the public; but rather those that save the trouble of reflection, and 
place the least obstruction to the machinery of recitation. 
• It was tho unanimous testimony of all who were engaged in Pesta- 
lozzi's school at Burgdorf, that the time spent there was the most prof- 
itable and pleasant period of their lives. 

The growing fame of the institution attracted to it, not merely boys, 
but often men of mature years, who left honorable and remunerative em- 
ployment in order to study the method there pursued. Far from being 
ashamed of the elementary character of the exercises, these men were 
candid enough to confess that their own education had been neglected in 
these very elements, and that they were fully convinced that the true 
system of education must be built upon a foundation of thorough ele- 
mentary instruction. 

A young man who visited Pestalozzi after having completed, 
with apparent success, his studies at a German university, was made 
aware of this truth in one of his walks along the river Emme, which 
bathes the foot of the hill on which the castle stands. Perceiving 
that a boy picked up from among the various pebbles of the river 
only those which belonged to the limestones, he exclaimed: "That 
boy makes me ashamed of my knowledge ! All the catalogue of sci- 
entific names which I have in my head would not enable me to select 
the limestones from others." A distinguished man of Sweden showed 
his faith in the work of Pestalozzi by traveling all the way from Stock- 



42 PESTALOZZI. 

holm to Burgdorf, in order to consult him about the best method of 
educating his infant son. 

If his teaching and example gained him such confidence from per- 
sons living at a distance, how much greater must have been the mag-^ 
ical charm of his personal influence. Von Turk states that "he never 
saw a face expressive of more enthusiasm, goodness, and love for all 
men than that of Pestalozzi." It was by no means an attractive face, 
judged by the usual standard of beauty; neither Avere his words and 
sentences very intelligible, partly because they were uttered in the 
Swiss dialect, and partly because they were the thoughts and feelings 
of a man who, as Biber says, " carried an unborn universe in his 
bosom." 

As a teacher, especially in regard to order and system, many faults 
could be found with Pestalozzi's work; but his enthusiasm usually tri- 
umphed over all obstacles, and he gained in interest what he lost from 
want of method. This enthusiasm was sufficient even to counteract 
the effects of physical prostration. An incident, in point, is related 
by Kriisi: "A foreign embassador announced his intention to visit the 
school on a certain day. Pestalozzi, unfortunately, was confined to his 
bed by a violent illness. He, nevertheless, insisted on being present 
on this important occasion, and, supported by Kriisi, he entered the 
school-room with many a groan. He questioned his pupils; his eyes 
began to glisten, and receiving their quick answers, he became ani- 
mated, and his restless mind did not suffer the body to remain quiet. 
He left the supporting arm, dropped the cane, moved about with a 
step that grew steadier and quicker, till he actually forgot — nay, lost 
all his pain.' The mind had triumphed over the body and performed 
a cure which no physical agency could have effected in the same 
time." 

While at Burgdorf, he became so well known throughout ►Switzer- 
land that he was chosen one of the deputies sent to Paris in 1802, in 
order to frame a new constitution, which should unite the conflicting 
interests of Switzerland and put an end to its internal dissensions. A 
letter, written by Kriisi during his absence, shows that in his new ca- 
pacity Pestalozzi met with little success: "We believe that Pestalozzi 
is returning from Paris, and will be here in a few days. How we all 
long for him, you can imagine. Alas! his noble heart made him hope 
that he could do something for his father-land. He found the fate of 
our country and of all Europe in the hands of men who care only for 
themselves, and subordinate every thing to their own ends. This very 
experience will be of importance to him, as it will bind him more 
firmly to his work, through which alone it is possible to gain a lasting 



LIFE AT BURGDORF. 4o 

influence on the minds and convictions of the people, and free them 
from the chains which bind them. 

" Pestalozzi's method will work immeasurable results: the nobler 
part of humanity will foster it ; the simplest intellect will seize' it. 
The interest in it increases from day to day, and men who but a short 
time ago were heart and soul opposed to it have become its stanch- 
est supporters." 

At this time the government of Switzerland was merely temporary. 
Every thing that depended on political action was unstable and preca- 
rious. The chief political parties — the Federalists and Centralists — 
were bitterly hostile to each other, and each was struggling for suprem- 
acy. In this extremity, an appeal was made to Napoleon to act as 
mediator between the warring factions ; and in his decision lie com- 
promised between the two parties. In deference to the historic ante- 
cedents of Switzerland, he restored to the cantons much of their 
former power ; but at the same time he made liberal modifications in 
favor of more modern ideas. 

Up to 1802, Pestalozzi had received from the Helvetic Government 
a scanty support ; and had even obtained grants for the establishment of 
a Normal School and an Orphan Asylum in addition to the Institution 
which he already conducted. By the political change, however, the 
funds at the disposal of the central government for the support of 
schools, Avere taken out of its hands, thus depriving Pestalozzi, not 
only of prospective benefit, but of present support. Besides this, the 
castle which he had gratuitously occupied was again to be surrendered 
to the governor of the district. This literally turned the school out- 
of-doors; for the claims of the poor school-master "were of little conse- 
quence when compared with those of the magnate of the district, before 
whom all must deferentially bow. 

Pestalozzi was now obliged to look out for another place to which to 
transfer his Institution. At this juncture, Emanuel von Fellenberg, 
founder of the Agricultural School at Hofwyl, invited him to estab- 
lish a school contiguous to his own at Munchenbuchsee. At the same 
time the authorities of the canton of Vaud, just emancipated from the 
thralldom of the Bernese Government, offered him the choice of three 
castles in which to continue his operations. At first undecided, he 
sent the greater number of his pupils, under the supervision of a part 
of his teachers, to Munchenbuchsee, while his other assistants opened 
a school in the castle of Yverdon, situated at the southern extremity 
of Lake Neufchatel. In the meantime, in connection with Kriisi, he 
devoted himself to literary pursuits. But the separated members of 
his Institution ardently desiring to be reunited under his fatherly care, 



44 PESTALOZZI. 

lie yielded to their wishes, and joined them in the castle at Yverdon. 
This old fortress, with its thick walls and four round towers, which 
had stood many a siege of invading armies, was now captured by a 
school-master ; and it was henceforth to become more formidable in 
its attack upon ignorance, than it had before been in its defense of 
liberty. 



CHAPTER V. 
LIFE AT YVERDOX. 

WE have now arrived at the most momentous period of Pesta- 
lozzi's life. His Institution had obtained such celebrity that 
the attention of all the prominent friends of education in civilized 
Europe was centered upon its work. A great many facts of that 
era must necessarily be omitted, as partaking too much of a local 
character to be of general interest to the public. There are, however, 
features of it which belong to the whole world, and which may be 
studied and imitated by coming generations. As the contemplation of 
the Christian Church in its original purity and simplicity will ever pre- 
serve religion from degenerating into mere formal rites and dogmas, 
so the contemplation of this period of educational enthusiasm will have 
a powerful influence in arresting instruction from degenerating into 
routine. 

An eye-witness speaks of the spirit prevailing in the Institution 
during its best period, in the following words: "The pupils and teach- 
ers were united by that unatfected love which Pestalozzi, who, in years, 
was a man verging to the grave, but in heart and mind a genuine 
child, seemed to breathe out continually and impart to all who came 
within his influence. The children forgot that they had another home, 
and the teachers that there was any other world than the Institution. 
Not a man claimed a privilege for himself, not one wished to be con- 
sidered above the others. Teachers and pupils were entirely united. 
They not only slept in the same rooms, and shared the labors and en- 
joyments of the day, but they were on a footing of perfect equality. 
The same man who read a lecture on History one hour, would, per- 
haps, during the next, sit on the same form with the pupils for a lesson 
in Arithmetic or Geometry, and, without compromising his dignity, 
would even request their assistance and receive their hints." 

The influence of Pestalozzi over his teachers Avas veiy great. On 
two evenings of each week, he met with them to discuss their work. 
At these meetings, each one was called upon to give an account of the 
(45) 



46 



PESTAL02ZI. 



plan of his lessons, and of the character and behavior of the children 
under his special care. The remarks of each, and the conclusions to 
■which they led, were noted in a book, which was always open for ex- 
amination. These consultations tended to produce unity of feeling, 
thought, and action among the teachers. Mistakes which may have 
been committed were criticised and corrected ; and excellences became 
a common heritage. The character and habits of the pupils became 
known to all, and the ability shown in one direction was made to bal- 
ance the deficiency in another — a result which often relieved them 
from an unjust charge of stupidity or idleness. 

In many schools the teachers stand isolated. They are neither in 
communication with the parents nor the principal, nor do they have 




View of Yverdon. 

any action in unison, except in the all-absorbing task of making a pro- 
gramme of the daily recitations. If there were more frequent consul- 
tations and greater concert of action among teachers, the moral and 
intellectual condition of schools would be improved. 

A healthful mind requires a healthful body; therefore, physical edu- 
cation, in the Institution, received due attention. The pupils were 
made to rise early, their food was good and simple, and gymnastic 
exercises were systematically practiced throughout the year. Frequent 
bathing in the neighboring lake, and walks upon the sunny hills, were 
favorite amusements in summer. No effeminacy was suffered to pre- 



LIFE AT YVKRDON. 47 

vail. If a spoiled boy, who was afraid of the air or the touch of the 
snow, entered the school, he was sure to be cured of his weakness by 
the example of his companions, which, in such cases, is the best 
instructor. 

Full exercise to every faculty of the mind was also given, and thus 
a healthful reciprocity was established between mind and body. The 
situation of the school, amidst some of the most beautiful scenery of 
Europe, proved a powerful auxiliary in the accomplishment of this 
end. 

The town of Yverdon is situated at the extremity of Lake Neufchii- 
tel, and commands an extensive view of this lake and its vine-clad 
shores, dotted with towns and villages. To the west, the Jura mount- 
ains extend in an unbroken chain, delightfully varied by pastures, 
forests, deep ravines, and masses of bare rock. From the summits of 
these mountains the traveler looks down upon the tranquil lake be- 
neath ; while to the south lies the wide valley, with all its variegated 
richness, bounded by the snow-draped Alps, from the center of which 
towers the majestic summit of Mont Blanc. This valley is traversed 
by the river Orbe, which, fed from an invisible lake above, rises sud- 
denly from beneath a high rock, and lower down falls over a precipice. 
These infinitely varied beauties of nature could not fail to inspire both 
teachers and pupils. 

It must not be understood, however, that the attention given to 
physical exercise and to the contemplation of nature and her laws, 
occasioned any neglect in other studies. On the contrary, the pupils 
received an additional stimulus from the strength gained, and from the 
spirit of observation aroused. The impressions, which flowed into the 
awakened senses from the magnificent scenery, provided materials for 
both thought and expression, and served especially as a basis for 
formal exercises in language and composition. According to this plan, 
composition comes before analysis, and the use of language before rules. 
In the old system, definitions and rules were given first, and the latter 
were thus often doomed to be rulers without dominion. 

Mathematics, however, was the branch in which the pupils made the 
greatest progress; and the recitations in this subject, caused much 
admiration on the part of visitors. The reason for this was, that the 
science of numbers could be most easily brought within the laws of pro- 
gressive development, which form the basis of the Pestalozzian philos- 
ophy. In the experimental stage of the great reform, it was but 
natural that prominence should be given to that study which most 
readily conformed to its spirit, and, at the same time, best illustrated 
its laws. Other branches, such as the various departments of Natural 



48 PESTALOZZI. 

History, were much more complicated in their relations ; and hence 
required a deeper investigation and a wider experience for their full 
elucidation. 

Singing formed a pleasing accompaniment to all the devotional exer- 
cises and festal gatherings of the Institution, and proved a strong ele- 
ment in promoting the harmony of its members. This subject was 
ably taught by Dreist, a man of high moral and religious principle. 
In this work he followed the plan of Nageli and Pfeiffer, composers 
of high order, and friends of Pestalozzi. 

Religious instruction, calculated to lead the pupil to the living- 
source from which spring humility, self-devotion, and an active striv- 
ing for perfection of character, received constant and special atten- 
tion. The morning and evening devotions, in which all joined ; the 
truly elevating manner in which some festival days, especially Christ- 
mas and New-year's, were celebrated ; and, above all, the spirit of 
brotherly love which seemed to pervade the members of the school, 
gave evidence that the loving precepts of Christ were received by 
willing ears and intelligent minds. This was the crowning glory of 
the whole system. 

It was with reverence and love that the members of the household 
listened to the impassioned appeals of one who had borne the cross 
for his principles ; had devoted his life to the welfare of the poor 
and unfortunate, and upon whom, with unanimous consent, they be- 
stowed the affectionate title, "Father Pestalozzi." But his reputation 
was not confined to his school, nor even to Yverdon and its vicinity. 
His fame penetrated to distant countries, and his fervent appeals in 
behalf of a better system of education reached the ears of enlight- 
ened men every-where. 

The time was no doubt favorable for the cause of universal educa- 
tion. The horrors perpetrated during the French Revolution, and the 
deep wounds inflicted by internal dissensions and cruel wars, could not 
fail to direct the attention of thinking men to the cause of the evil, as 
well as to the remedy by which alone it could be radically cured. 
( 'lcar-minded men advocated an education which should be universal, 
not only in its freedom to all, but in its development of every faculty 
of the human mind. 

Fichte, the great philosopher, in his addresses to the German na- 
tion, spoke of the principles of Pestalozzi as the best means for national 
regeneration. William, King of Prussia, through his Minister of Edu- 
cation, sent a number of young men of talent and culture to Yverdon to 
study the new methods. The king of Holland, the "Prince of Peace," 
then all-powerful in Spain, and even Alexander, the mighty Czar of 



LIFE AT YVERDON. 49 

Russia, took a similar interest in the cause. Pupils came, not only 
from the various states of Germany, but from England, France, and 
Sweden. Thus the Institution at Yverdon contained pupils from 
nearly every nation of Europe, although the greater number were of 
German and French origin. This fact often obliged the teachers, in 
order to be understood by all, to give their instruction in two lan- 
guages — a feature not favorable to rapid progress. 

Pestalozzi's time was fully occupied in the superintendence of this 
large and heterogeneous assembly, in an extensive and varied corre- 
spondence, in his literary labors, and in attending to the financial man- 
agement of the Institution. For this last labor he, unfortunately, had 
little taste or ability, and the balances were usually against him. The 
reasons for these deficits are obvious. Of the great number of pupils 
which belonged to the Institution, scarcely two-thirds paid their full 
board and tuition. Of the remainder, some paid a part, and many 
nothing at all. No pupil was rejected on account of his poverty, but 
every one who manifested a desire to improve Avas admitted. Although 
urged to caution by the sad experiences of his early life, Pestalozzi ever 
forgot his worldly interests when the welfare of humanity appealed to 
his susceptible heart. A touching incident, illustrative of this self-for- 
getfulness, was related to the author by an eye-witness: 

"A poor young man, having traveled on foot from a distance to pay 
his tribute of respect and admiration to Pestalozzi and his work, found 
himself so reduced that he could not pay for a night's lodging at the 
hotel. Pestalozzi, not wishing to disturb his household, offered his 
own bed to the wearied guest. Some friends calling at his room 
soon after, were astonished to see his bed occupied by a stranger. 
Alarmed at his absence, they went in search of him, and found him 
at last, stretched on one of the hard benches of the school-room in 
sound sleep, and totally unconscious that he had done any thing but 
his duty." 

He found the fittest instruments for his work among the humble and 
lowly, and his joy must have been pure and unalloyed when after- 
ward he saw them filling positions of trust and responsibility, an honor 
to science and a blessing to their fellow-men. 

There is, apparently, another phase to his character. Instead of a 
poor wanderer, the arrival of an influential statesman, or perhaps a 
prince, is announced. What causes him to rush impetuously into the 
presence of the august visitor and lead him to the recitations of his 
best classes? Is it subserviency to the powerful and the rich, and a 
selfish desire to obtain their approval and applause ? Or is it because 
he sees behind the prince or statesman a whole nation which would be 
P. 4. 



50 PESTALOZZI. 

blessed by receiving a better instruction? The following incident will 
best answer these questions : 

The king of Prussia, on his visit to Neufchatel, then a Prussian 
principality, expressed a desire to see Pestalozzi. It happened, 
however, that the latter was very ill at that time, but his in- 
terest in the cause to which he had devoted his life impelled him to 
attend to the call. On being lifted into the coach, he fainted several 
times, and his friends strongly urged him to give up his intended 
visit. "No," said he; " let me go; for, if by my humble intercession, 
I shall only cause a single Prussian child to receive better instruction, 
I shall be satisfied." 

The bearing of Pestalozzi during the visit of the great Hungarian, 
Prince Esterhazy, is so characteristic of the man, that we can not 
forbear giving it in the words of Ramsauer, who had a part in the 
transaction: "In 1814, the aged Prince Esterhazy paid us a visit. 
Pestalozzi ran all over the house calling out. 'Ramsauer! Ramsauer! 
where are you ? Go directly with your best pupils to the Red House,' 
(the hotel at which the prince had alighted). 'The prince is a person 
of the highest importance and of infinite wealth, and has thousands of 
serfs in Hungary. He is certain to build schools and set free his slaves, 
if he can only be made to take an interest in the matter.' I took about 
fifteen pupils to the hotel, and Pestalozzi presented me to the prince 
with these words : ' This is the teacher of these pupils, a young man 
who fifteen years ago emigrated with other poor children from the 
canton of Appenzell, and came to me. He received an elementary 
education, according to his capacity, without let or hinderance. Now, 
he is a teacher himself. You thus see that there is as much ability 
in the poor as in the richest — frequently more ' (candid Pestalozzi) ; 
' but in the"" poor it is seldom developed, and even then not systemat- 
ically. He will show you every thing that we do better than I could. 
I will, therefore, leave him with you for the present,' 

"I now examined, taught, explained, and bawled, in my zeal, till 
I was quite hoarse, believing that the prince was quite convinced of 
every thing. At the end of an hour Pestalozzi returned. The prince 
expressed his pleasure at what he had seen. He then took leave, and 
Pestalozzi, standing on the steps of the hotel, said: 'He is quite con- 
vinced, quite convinced, and will certainly establish schools on his 
Hungarian estates.' After we had descended the stairs, he said: 
'What ails my arm? It is very painful; see, it is quite swollen. I 
can not bend it.' In truth, his wide sleeve was too small for his 
arm. I looked at the key of the house door, and said to him : 'Look 
here! you struck yourself against this key when we were going to 



LIFE AT YVERDON. 51 

the prince an hour ago. 1 On looking, it appeared that Pestalozzi 
had actually bent the key by hitting his elbow against it, and for an 
hour, in his excess of zeal and joy, had not noticed the pain." This 
shows how ardent and zealous was the good old man when he thought 
he had an opportunity of benefitting his fellow-men. 

During the war of 1814, a requisition was made by the Austrian 
commandant that the building should be given up as a hospital for 
his army. Fortunately, the Emperor Alexander was at Basel, and 
to him Pestalozzi immediately went to see if any thing could be done 
to save his school. He was received in the most friendly manner, 
and the emperor promised to interpose in his behalf. This he did, 
and the hospital was not established at Yverdon at all. 

In November of the same year, the emperor bestowed upon him 
the order of St. Vladimir, fourth class, " with which," says Kriisi, 
" he was so delighted, that he showed it to every one about him." 
His friends, who knew well that the real reason of his joy was the 
fact of seeing the mighty Czar pleased with his work, and interested 
in the cause of education, could, nevertheless, not conceal a smile at 
the thought, that a man who had tried to save humanity from its 
mental sloth, should be rewarded with the fourth class order, while 
the inventor of a wholesale killing machine had been found worthy 
of one of the second class. 

These apparent fits of vanity are in such strong contrast to his 
usual simplicity and modesty of manner, that they must be attributed 
to the temporary impulses by which he was moved when he received 
an unusual and unexpected recognition of the value of his work from 
those avIio had power to carry it more fully into execution. 

The following incident further illustrates the impulsive nature of 
Pestalozzi and the genuine goodness of his heart: "The oldest teach- 
ers," says Kriisi, " myself included, were always accustomed to use 
the familiar ' thou ' in addressing our friend and father. It hap- 
pened, one day, that I accompanied Pestalozzi to Berne, where he was 
to visit some members of the Government. On our journey, which 
was accomplished on foot, Pestalozzi suggested to me that it might 
be desirable to drop the familiar pronoun, and to prefix Master to his 
name in the presence of the distinguished men whom we would soon 
meet. Although inwardly vexed, I said nothing. When half-way 
there Pestalozzi expressed a desire for cherries, which I accordingly 
bought, and, taking off my three-cornered hat and making a profound 
bow, I said : ' Will Master Pestalozzi condescend to take some cher- 
ries?' This wa* too much for the assumed dignity of my simple-hearted 
companion, and, forgetting his own injunctions, he said, with a half- 



52 PESTALOZZI. 

laughing, half-angry expression, ' Thou wicked man ; never do this 
again in all thy life! 5 Thus the matter ended." 

It might have heen well had Pestalozzi possessed sufficient vanity 
or pride to have made him more careful of external appearances, 
especially in regard to person and dress. It may be said, that an 
extraordinary person should not be judged by the ordinary standard ; 
and, that it is better to neglect the conventionalities of life in the 
furtherance of a great cause, than to give such exclusive attention to 
personal appearance as to forget the nobler interests of humanity. 
But in this, as in most of the practical concerns of life, there is a 
medium course, which will allow of a devotion to a great cause, and, 
at the same time, will bestow sufficient thought upon manners and 
dress as not to excite special attention. 

It is also true, that a man who stands above the multitude, either 
in character or position, should be an example in small as well as 
in great things ; and an educator, especially, is expected to practice 
the precepts which he inculcates. We have already spoken of the 
hieroglyphical character of his handwriting, which only his intimate 
friends were able to decipher, and of his carelessness in arithmetical 
operations, which he performed by his heart rather than by his head ; 
but we have yet to mention how people who judge only by the out- 
side were often sadly mistaken in the ideal picture they had formed 
of him. 

It happened once that his wife sat, in company with other ladies, 
on a balcony overlooking the road at a watering-place. They saw a 
traveler approaching on foot, with clothes covered with dust, and 
otherwise presenting such a singular appearance, that one of the 
ladies, turning to Madame Pestalozzi, called her attention to him by 
saying, "Look there! who may this monster be who is approach- 
ing?" "Madame," replied the lady, her eyes glistening with pride 
and pleasure, "that is my husband." 

On another Occasion he got into trouble from a similar mistake. 
Having undertaken a journey on foot to the town of Solothurn, he 
met a beggar, who asked for alms. Pestalozzi, who could never 
refuse any appeal of that kind, searched his pockets for money, but 
found that it had already taken to itself wings. In order not to dis- 
appoint the man, whom he saw anxiously watching him, he looked 
about his person and found that he could easily spare his silver shoe- 
buckles. These he accordingly gave to the beggar. Finding, how- 
ever, that the shoes had a tendency to slip from his feet, he fastened 
them with bits of straw, and, absorbed in thought, with occasional 
exclamations and gesticulations, he tramped along the dusty road- 



LIFE AT YVEEDOX. 53 

On entering the gates of the city he was arrested by a policeman as 
a vagabond, or, at least, as a suspicious character. Pestalozzi expos- 
tulated in vain. He could not convince his uninvited companion of 
his respectability. As a last resort, he asked to be taken before 
Luthi, the mayor. This request was granted. Upon arriving there, 
the mayor at once recognized his esteemed friend, and embraced him 
with many a word of affection and welcome. The policeman stood 
by with eyes and mouth open, and at last slipped away, conscious of 
having committed a blunder in his zeal for the interests of the city, 
and with grave doubts in regard to his own powers as a physiogno- 
mist. 

Like others who have been possessed with a single absorbing idea, 
he was frequently so absent-minded as to be utterly unconscious of 
surrounding circumstances. It is related, that once, during a pelting 
rain, he went to see a friend who lived at a considerable distance. 
Although he had an umbrella, he was so absorbed in thought that he 
forgot to open it. When his friend saw him approaching, dripping 
wet, with his umbrella under his arm, he exclaimed: "Why did 
you not open your umbrella? Do you not see it rain?" "You are 
right," said Pestalozzi, spreading his umbrella. "Oh," said his 
amused friend, "this will be of little use, now that you are under 
shelter." "You are right," said the philosopher, as he again shut 
the umbrella and entered the house. 

While these incidents are ludicrous, they reveal a certain helpless- 
ness and unfitness for the practical requirements of life, and explain, 
to a large extent, the dissensions and sufferings to which he was ex- 
posed toward the evening of his eventful life. These infirmities also 
account for the want of order which some sharp critics, especially 
Raumer, seem to have discovered in his school. 

In regard to this last point, there were circumstances which would 
have acted unfavorably in any school, even if conducted by a much 
higher administrative talent than was possessed by Pestalozzi. 

First : It was not established by government, nor by any associa- 
tion which could command money and influence ; but it was called 
into life by the enthusiasm and persistence of a single man who had 
neither wealth nor position. He was aided, it is true, by trustworthy 
friends; but they all relied for success upon the principles on which 
their work was founded, and gave little heed to the pecuniary bene- 
fits which might have been derived from cooperation. 

Second : It contained pupils from almost every country of Europe, 
professing different religions and speaking different languages. 

Third : The pupils consisted, not merely of boys, sent thither by 



54 PESTALOZZI. 

their parents and guardians, but, in many instances, of men who had 
left their vocations in order to study the method with its originator. 
It thus often happened, that the unsophisticated boy and the mature 
thinker were in the same room, engaged in the same work. 

Fourth : It was visited at all seasons and at all times of the day 
by students and foreign travelers, who wished to observe the work- 
ings of the system, and whose wishes Avere generally gratified at the 
expense of regularity and order. 

It was not in the power of Pestalozzi to change the circumstances 
which were the direct results of his great reputation; and it is obvi- 
ous that they were not favorable to the healthful progress of the 
school. The peculiar and anomalous condition of affairs often neces- 
sitated a course of action in which the principles of the system were 
openly violated to meet certain pressing and unexpected emergencies. 

At Burgdorf, where the teachers were linked to Pestalozzi by 
bonds of reverence and love, and where the number of pupils was 
small, the government of the school was of a patriarchal character. 
The advice or wish of the venerable father acted as a command, and 
his approbation like a blessing. At Yverdon, this touching faith and 
child-like simplicity gradually changed, to conform to the new condi- 
tions and circumstances. Some of the teachers who excelled in prac- 
tical efficiency or learning, had, in spite of their self-negation, estab- 
lished a reputation which, in many respects, was equal to that of 
their master. They were often thought able to express his views 
better than himself, and hence they were frequently consulted by 
the students of the system. In spite of this voluntary tribute to 
their knowledge and ability, they always respected the wishes and 
authority of their old friend, and upon all important occasions con- 
sulted him. 

During the period when the reputation of the Institution was at 
the highest, the government was of a decidedly republican character. 
This spirit of equality pervaded all thoughts and sentiments, and 
was shared by pupils and teachers alike. The truth which a pupil 
established by investigation, was as much respected as though found 
in a book or uttered by a teacher. Freedom, restrained only by sal- 
utary laws, led to voluntary exertions; and, although these occasion- 
ally disturbed the perfect order of the school, still the rich fruits of 
liberty more than compensated for the irregularities — a truth which 
will also apply to all other human affairs. 

In the complicated relations of a large school, two things are neces- 
sary to its highest success — unity of purpose, and harmony of action. 
A watch in ust have a spring to furnish it with motive power, or the 



LIFE AT YVEEDON. 55 

wheels can not work in unison and give uniformity to the motion of 
the hands. The spring of a school should be moral power ; but, 
when despotism usurps this place and commands obedience without 
regard to motive, harmony of action is lost through the gradual de- 
cay of the liberty, good-will, and enthusiasm, upon which it depends. 
From the republican rule, which fostered freedom and excited in- 
dividual action, the school at Yverdon gradually passed under a 
despotic sway, which proved fatal alike to its success and to the 
application of the principles upon which it had been founded. 

In the following passage Pestalozzi confesses his own inability, and 
fully acknowledges the assistance which he received from others : 
"When I consider my work as it stands now, I must confess that 
no man, by his own resources, was less capable of accomplishing it 
than I was. It required extraordinary means, and I had not even 
ordinary ones at my command. It required calm, dispassionate 
views, and I am the most nervous and impulsive man in the world. 
It required deep mathematical knowledge, and I have the most un- 
mathematical mind that can be imagined. It required classical cul- 
ture and great powers of language, combined with administrative 
talent, and I possess none of these. My head was so hot, that my 
friends were sometimes afraid it would crack ; but I found men of clear 
and calm minds to sustain me in my labors, and so my work exists. 
All this was done by love, which possesses divine power if we are 
only true to the right and not afraid to carry the cross." 

We have already shown, that, from the peculiar character of his 
genius, and from the preponderance of his feelings over his reason, 
he needed some one to render his ideas and plans intelligible to the 
world, and to unite them into a regular systematic whole. He needed 
this assistance, in order to show the connection of his work with the 
progress of human culture and civilization. To Niederer we are 
indebted for the philosophical form in which the truths of the great 
educational revival are embodied. Raumer says, that "only by the 
aid of such a man did Pestalozzi hope that his Swiss idiom could be 
translated into intelligible German. For some time he even thought 
that Niederer understood him better than he did himself." 

Many are the honorable testimonials given by Pestalozzi during 
the period of their friendship to the rare value and disinterestedness 
of his co-laborer. And well might he be proud of him; for the 
services of Niederer were of such a nature that they won for Pes- 
talozzi the admiration and respect of the educated public ; and were 
further required to shield him from the enemies who tried to under- 
mine the very foundations of his system. But there was one serious 



56 PESTALOZZI. 

defect in Niederer's work. The results which his philosophic mind an- 
ticipated would follow a thorough application of Pestalozzi's princi- 
ples, he sometimes so represented, that the impression was conveyed 
that they were actually attained, while yet they existed merely in 
theory. 

Moreover, it was claimed, and not without foundation, that Niederer 
was unable to give much aid to the practical details of teaching, or to 
contribute materially to the realization of his own philosophic sug- 
gestions. 

It seems natural, therefore, that Pestalozzi, in moments of de- 
spondency, or when a strong practical hand was required for the 
government of his school, should have become somewhat estranged 
from his faithful friend; and the more so, as both possessed impul- 
sive temperaments which were not attuned to each other. It is cer- 
tain that at one time the influence of Niederer over Pestalozzi was 
such that several passages of his writings, in style as well as thought, 
point to the former as their real author. It is to these he undoubt- 
edly alludes, when, at a later period, by way of apology for discrep- 
ancies between his theory and practice, he says: "In this and sev- 
eral other passages, I express, not so much my own peculiar views 
of education in their original simplicity, as certain immature philo- 
sophical notions with which, at that time, notwithstanding all our 
good intentions, most of the inmates of our house, myself among the 
rest, must needs perplex our heads, and which brought me person- 
ally to a stand-still in my work. These views caused the Institution, 
which seemed to flourish, to become rotten to the very core, and are 
to be looked upon as the hidden source of all the misfortunes which 
have since come upon me." 

This throwing the cause of all his misfortunes upon an abstraction 
must be taken cum grano salis. It is often the case that an indi- 
vidual whose physical organization has been weakened by the abuses 
of a whole life and by a total neglect of the laws of health, dis- 
covers at once that some innocent. fruit of which he has partaken is 
the cause of the pain which he feels. In the same manner the 
causes of a mental or moral disorder are often attributed to a 
casual incident in the great drama of action. 

In a letter to Pestalozzi, after the loss of mutual confidence, Nie- 
derer says: "Ruin entered your Institution when, dazzled and led 
away by individual instances of brilliant talents and results, you 
ceased to bestow any particular attention upon those moral qualities 
which, by their nature, can only work in silence, although they 
stand higher than talent, and alone can render the development of 



LIFE AT YVEKDOX. 57 

talent possible; when you began to act as if you owed every thing 
to that with which you could make a display, and nothing to what 
was not suited to this purpose. Under this fundamental error, I say 
more, under this fundamental injustice, Mathematics Avas made prom- 
inent; as if that alone Avas the essence of the method, and the sana- 
tion of humanity. Low and one-sided qualities Avere honored at the 
expense of the higher ones. Good temper, fidelity, lo\ r e, if not joined 
to these external attributes, were slighted and depreciated. In the 
kind of praise Avhich you gave to the manual dexterity of inexpe- 
rienced youths in particular departments, you placed this skill abo\ r e 
intelligence, knoAvledge, and experience." 

The reader is requested to notice the allusion made to the over- 
estimation of Mathematics, and to the preference giA'en to inexpe- 
rienced but showy youths Avho occupied positions as teachers, to old 
and faithful assistants, Avhose influence could not be estimated by 
public exhibitions. All these thrusts AA T ere aimed, not so much at 
Pestalozzi himself as at his false adviser and, at the time, actual 
master, Joseph Schmid. 

We have already shown, that, OAA'ing to its European reputation, 
the school Avas made up of incongruous elements, and Avas anomalous 
in character ; and, unless guided and controlled by the highest Avis- 
dom, the seeds of dissolution which it contained Avould germinate. 
While conceding this as a matter of justice, it can not be denied 
that the direct bloAV which caused its painful and violent death, Avas 
given by Schmid. In order to shoAV this, Ave propose to give a brief 
notice of his career. 

Joseph Schmid Avas a Catholic peasant boy from Tyrol, Avho entered 
the Institution Avhile it Avas at Burgdorf. He exhibited such a poAver 
in Mathematics that Pestalozzi took great delight in his progress, and 
spoke of him as "a child of the method," "a great poAA'er," etc., 
without inquiring very deeply into his character. 

It soon became evident to most of the teachers, that, beneath a 
rough exterior and a blunt manner, Schmid concealed the germs of a 
selfish ambition and overbearing intolerance. He became a teacher 
in the school at Y\^erdon, and raised the mathematical department 
to a high degree of excellence. In 1810, he resigned his position and 
opened a school in Austria, Avhich he conducted with great success. 
Although the remaining teachers had no admiration for his charac- 
ter, they greatly missed his executive talent, both in his oaa'ii branch 
and in the financial and administrative departments of the Institu- 
tion. This Avas especially the case with Pestalozzi, Avho, in his ad- 
vancing a»;e, felt more than eA r er the need of a strong hand to aid in 



58 PESTALOZZI. 

all the practical details of the business connected with his school. 
Accordingly, an invitation to return to his former position was con- 
veyed to Schmid through Niederer. Schmid accepted the call, and 
returned to Yverdon in 1815. 

His diplomatic tact showed him at one glance the advantage of 
his position. Seeing from the confused state of affairs under which 
the school labored that his services had become indispensable, he was 
determined to show that he had come back as master, and not as a 
subordinate. He possessed all the elements of successful discipline, 
except the spirit of love and truth, through which alone voluntary 
allegiance is rendered. The rude and inconsiderate manner in which 
he treated the older associates of Pestalozzi, men who had sacrificed 
their best years in the furtherance of the great reform in which they 
were all engaged, caused the first feelings of discontent ; and when 
he added to this sweeping changes without consulting any one, all 
the teachers expressed their dislike for such arbitrary proceedings. 

For a time the wife of Pestalozzi acted as a minister of peace be- 
tween the hostile parties ; and during her last illness, the teachers 
refrained from remonstrances, out of sympathy for the deep affliction 
of their venerable friend. This noble woman died on the 11th of 
December, 1815, aged nearly eighty years. She had been the faith- 
ful partner of Pestalozzi for little less than half a century. At the 
funeral, after a hymn had been sung, Pestalozzi, turning toward the 
coffin, said: "We were shunned and despised by all; sickness and 
poverty bowed us down ; and we ate dry bread with tears. What 
was it that, in those days of severe trial, gave you and me strength 
to persevere and not lose hope?" Thereupon he took a Bible, which 
lay near at hand, pressed it to the breast of the corpse, and said : 
"From this source you and I drew courage and strength and peace." 
She was buried under two tall walnut trees in the garden of the 
castle. 

Soon after the death of Madame Pestalozzi, their indignation 
against Schmid caused twelve of the teachers to draw up a 
formal complaint against him, and present it to Pestalozzi, with the 
distinct intimation that, unless the arbitrary proceedings were at once 
discontinued, they would be obliged to leave. Broken in spirit and 
health, and tormented by conflicting emotions, the old man yielded 
to his evil adviser, and accepted their resignation. The German 
teachers at once left. Relieved of these obstacles to his ambition, 
Schmid began to direct his weapons against Niederer and Krusi. 
The latter was too gentle and peaceful in disposition to enter into 
any conflict, and, in 1<S1(>, sorrowful as a child who takes leave of 



LIFE AT YVEEDON. 59 

his father, he severed his connection with Pestalozzi. Niederer re- 
mained another year, when he also left, and Schmid was sole master 
of the field. 

This victory proved the ruin of the school. Whether, misled by 
vanity, Schmid thought himself equal to the whole task of managing 
a complicated establishment, or whether he hoped to attract new 
pupils from abroad through the great reputation of Pestalozzi and Ins 
own acknowledged ability as a mathematical teacher, he was alike 
doomed to disappointment. 

It is difficult to comprehend how Pestalozzi, with his great purity 
and warmth of heart, could feel any real attraction toward Schmid, 
who had bereft him of his oldest friends, and who was so universally 
disliked. His own answer to this is: " Inexplicable feelings drew me 
toward him from the first moment of his appearance in our midst;" 
"I have never felt myself so drawn toward any other pupil;" and, 
"He threw a hard shell about the kernel of my vanishing labors, 
and saved me." 

It often happens, indeed, that persons of different temperament are 
attracted toward each other, and form friendships,— the peculiarities 
of each setting off and stimulating the best qualities of the other. 
But, if such friendship is lasting, there must be a unity of faith in 
all important matters, and their lives must be devoted, in common, 
to one noble end. No self-denying character can remain long in 
unison with one whose selfish aims are manifest. 

Here is, perhajDS, the key to Pestalozzi's temporary delusion. 
Schmid's plans were so artfully laid, that his selfishness was entirely 
concealed under the guise of philanthropy. He flattered Pestalozzi, 
that the generous scheme of founding a school for the poor, which 
the latter had conceived fifty years before, should now be realized ; 
the last years of the old man's life should be cheered by the full ac- 
complishment of the objects to which he had devoted the best part 
of his manhood ; the funds for this noble charity could easily be 
raised by the publication of his scattered writings, etc. To these 
schemes Pestalozzi gave ready assent. A subscription for the sale of 
these writings received the signatures of several crowned heads, and of 
a great number of private persons in all parts of Europe. Fifty thou- 
sand francs were collected and intrusted to Schmid. Was this sum 
the "hard shell thrown about the kernel of his vanishing labors?" 
It did not save him. 

The school for the poor was established at Clindy, near Yverdon, 
but it did not flourish. About thirty orphans were received ; but, 
from the publicity given it, the many useless experiments introduced, 



60 PESTALOZZI. 

and the almost classical course of study pursued, it was not adapted 
to the wants of the pupils. The unity, simplicity, and enthusiasm 
of the other schools were not there. After a short and sickly exist- 
ence, it was given up in 1<S^.">. 

The Institution at Yverdon, deserted by its best teachers, and by 
most of its pupils, was given up at the same time. Pestalozzi's feel- 
ings, on leaving a place where he had spent nearly a quarter of a cen- 
tury, and about which clustered so many glorious as well as humili- 
ating associations, Avere of a most painful character. In a letter to a 
friend, he writes: "It seemed to me as if the closing of the Institu- 
tion was the closing of my life." 



CHAPTER VI. 

CLOSING YEARS OF HIS LIFE. 

AFTER the events related in the last chapter, Pestalozzi returned 
to his helovecl Neuhof, which was in the hands of his grand- 
son who had married a sister of Schmid. In this place, under the 
influence of lacerated feelings, he wrote "Song of a Dying Swan" 
and "Events of my Life." These, on account of the accusations 
which he makes against himself, against some of his former friends, 
and against the errors of his method, have been differently criticised, 
according to the more or less favorable disposition of those who have 
reviewed his life. If they had been written in a calm, dispassionate 
state of mind, they might claim our full consideration, as the confes- 
sions of an octogenarian, who looks back upon a long and agitated 
life, and tries to separate its vain and perishing features from those 
which are destined to immortality. Such was, unfortunately, not 
the case with Pestalozzi. It is, however, cheering to know that he 
preserved to the last his interest for the cause of education. 

In the summer of 1826 he visited the Orphan School at Beuggen, 
of which Zeller was superintendent. The children received him with 
songs, and offered him an oak wreath. But he declined it, saying, 
with tearful eyes, "Not to me, but to innocence, belongs this wreath." 
They then sang the song which he had introduced into his "Leon- 
ard and Gertrude," and which, from its associations with the past, 
stirred his inmost soul : 

" Thou, who from the highest skies, 

Every storm and sorrow stillest; 
Hearts that doubled anguish tries. 

Doubly with thy sweetness fillest ; 
On the wave of passion driven, 

Oh, how longs my soul to rest! 
Peace of heaven, 

Come, oh, come within my breast." 

In November of the same year, he was present at an educational 
convention at Brugg, where he read an essay on " The Simplest Way 
to Educate a Child from the Cradle to his Sixth Year." His heart 
(61) 



62 



PESTALOZZf. 



seemed to be as full of the subject as ever; and when he mentioned 
the innocent ways of childhood, tears filled his eyes. He returned to 
Neuhof, and there, with his family, quietly celebrated his eighty-sec- 
ond birth-clay. 

Soon after this he was prostrated with a fever, and in a few days 
was removed to the neighboring town of Brugg, in order to be nearer 
a physician. But the fever increased, and it was soon apparent that 
he would never recover. During his last hours, he said : "I for- 
give my enemies : may they find peace, now that I go to my rest. 
I should have been glad to live another month, in order to complete 
my last work ; but I also thank God for calling me away from this 
life. My beloved family, remain attached to each other, and seek 
your happiness in the quietness of your domestic circle." 




The old School-house at Birr, with Pestalozzi's Grave before it. 



He breathed his last on the morning of the 27th of February, 1827. 
He was buried in the cemetery of Birr, near the old school-house, 
which was afterward rebuilt, with an ornamental inscription to his 
memory. No more appropriate monument could have been devised 
for him than this — a cheerful home for those he always cherished. 
Few strangers attended his funeral, for the snow lay deep on the 
ground, and his interment took place sooner than was expected. 



CLOSING YEARS OF HIS LIFE. 



63 



The teachers and children of the surrounding villages sang their 
thanks to the departed at his grave. 




New School-house, with inscription' to Pestalozzi. 

In conclusion, we will add a few words in regard to his person, 
temper, and habits. In stature, he was rather slender and small, 
and, although not free from occasional fits of nervous disease, he 
possessed great powers of endurance. To a fastidious observer, his 
stooping figure and wrinkled face, surrounded by stiff', bushy hair, 
presented but little attraction. Having been urged at one time to 
have his likeness taken, he said: "Those who would perform this 
task must either violate the laws of truth or of taste ; neither the 
one nor the other shall be done with my consent." But the beauty 
which springs from a pure, unselfish spirit, and a heart fall of love 
and charity for all mankind, ever shone from his countenance, ami 
made one forget the uncouth form and plain features. These con- 
stantly reflected the feelings of the moment, changing with the va- 
rying moods of his mind; at one time, expressing the heaven of 
love and affection, and at another, the sadness of care and de- 
spondency. When animated, his eyes seemed to move forward like 
brilliant stars, and then again to retreat, as if they were gazing into 
the inwai'd immensity of thought. The fire of youth lighted his 
countenance and shone even through the wrinkles of age. His voice 



(34 PESTALOZZI. 

was variously modulated — equally subservient to the gentle accents 
of love or to the thundering tones of indignation. 

His walk was uneven ; hasty when impelled by his lively temper, 
and slow only when absorbed in thought. His chest was deep and 
rounded ; his neck stiff* and strong. Every thing about him indicated 
an instrument in which all the chords of human nature were intensely 
vibrating, and from which new strains of truth and love must flow. 
His temper was quick, and easily excited ; his conversation animated, 
and rich in ideas. When at leisure among his friends, he showed 
an ever-ready wit and much power of repartee, combined with great 
originality of thought. 

His vitality and endurance were such, that, during the period of his 
greatest activity, he usually arose at two or three o'clock in the morn- 
ins: and began to dictate to his secretaries. In his domestic relations 
he was uniformly tender and affectionate. To his associates he was 
at once adviser, friend, and father. The most prominent character- 
istics in his religious life were his profound reverence and deep hu- 
mility. If he failed to satisfy all in his profession of faith, or by his 
neglect of dogmatic creeds, there can be but one opinion in regard to 
his constant self-denial and deeds of practical benevolence. Over his 
faults let us throw Christ's mantle of charity — he has loved much, 
therefore much will be forgiven to him. 



Part II 



ASSOCIATES OF PESTALOZZI. 



P. 5 (65f 



introduction to part il 



THE first associates of Pestalozzi — Kriisi, Niederer, Tobler, and 
Buss — were so intimately connected with his work, that their 
biographies are necessary to supplement his own. They joined him 
when he was poor and unknown ; but their belief in the truth of his 
principles was so great that they were willing to sacrifice their own 
private interests to the great cause in which he was engaged. Some 
of the later teachers subsequently achieyed a higher scientific repu- 
tation ; but no others were so completely identified with the very 
conception and growth of the method which revolutionized the edu- 
cational ideas of the age. In addition, the lives of these men give 
other illustrations of that enthusiasm which springs from an earnest 
devotion to truth. 

Besides these four whom we have mentioned, there were many 
others connected with the Institution, both at Burgdorf and Yver- 
don. Some of these were from the ranks of the pupils — young 
men who came to Pestalozzi when ignorant boys, grew up in the 
method, received all the education the school afforded, and then 
became teachers. The most prominent of these are Ramsauer, 
Schmid, and Steiner, of whom we give a short account. 

Others were already men of culture and experience when they 
came to the Institution, and, merely wishing to learn the method, 
they remained but a comparatively short time. These alternately 
taught and received instruction. The names of Von Turk, Von 
Muralt, Blochmann, Plamann, Ladomus, Nabholz, Stern, and Ack- 
erman are among the most noted. 

Though all these men have done noble work in advancing the 
cause of education, and in disseminating the principles of Pestalozzi, 
it would exceed the plan of this work to give any detailed account 
of their lives. 



(66) 



CHAPTER I . 

HERMANN KRUSI. 




HERMANN KRUSI was born on the 12th of March, 1775, at 
Gais, a village situated amid the wild beauties of the mount- 
ainous canton of Appenzell. His father was a carrier, who brought 
up a large family as well as his means allowed. He died when his 
eldest son, the subject of our sketch, was in his fourteenth year. 
Upon this son devolved the occupation of the father and the task of 
supporting the family. Cheerfully and contentedly he commenced 
his labors, and for four years he pursued his weary rounds over 
mountain and valley, sustained by a sense of duty toward the help- 
less ones left in his charge. He might have followed this occupation 

(67) 



68 PESTALOZZI. 

during the remainder of his life had it not been for one of those cir- 
cumstance — sometimes called accidental, but which we would rather 
term providential — which entirely changed the purposes and condi- 
tions of his life. We will quote his own words: 

"Allow me to lead your imagination to the sunny height of Mount 
Giibris. On the summit of the pass, where the road from Gais to 
Trogen changes its direction, my life also took another turn. 
On a hot summer day in 1793, I carried a heavy burden up the steep 
mountain. Dripping with perspiration, I sat down at the top, when 
I was accosted by one of my relatives. I shall ever remember the 
short conversation which decided the fate of my life, and which 
he opened as follows: 

" ' It is warm.' 

"'Very warm, indeed.' 

"'Thou art earning thy bread by the sweat of thy brow. I un- 
derstand that the school-master of thy village is going away. Hast 
thou not a desire to become a candidate for that office?' 

'"Desire would help little here. A school-master must possess 
knowledge, and I have none.' 

"' What a school-master with us needs to know, thou wilt be able 
to learn readily at thy age.' 

"'But how, and where? I see no possibility of it.' 

" 'If thou hast desire for it, the needful will be found. Think of 
the matter and decide.' 

"Thus he left me. There was, indeed, matter for reflection, but 
no ray of light seemed to enter my soul. Hardly conscious of my 
load, I descended the steep path. Having arrived at home, I pro- 
cured a writing copy, which I wrote and rewrote perhaps a hundred 
times, in order to refresh my knowledge of penmanship, which, with 
reading, constituted, at that time, the principal branches taught at 
school. After this scanty preparation I had the courage to apply for 
the situation. 

"The day of examination arrived. One candidate, older than my- 
self, exhibited his learning. He was ordered to read the first 
chapter in the New Testament and to write some lines — a task 
which it took him half an hour to perform. I was called in. The 
examiner placed before me a genealogical table, from Adam to Abra- 
ham, as a reading exercise. He then handed me an unmended quill 
pen, desiring me to write something. 'But what shall I write?' 
said I. ' Write the Lord's Prayer, or whatever you like,' was the 
reply. As I had no knowledge, either of the parts of speech, of 
orthography, or of punctuation, the result of my scribbling may be 



HERMANN KRUSI. 69 

imagined. This was all the examination, and after it we retired. 
When we were recalled, the chairman informed ns that neither 
had been found overburdened with learning: one of us was better in 
reading, the other in writing ; but, since my rival was already forty 
years old, while I was only eighteen, they had thought I would 
sooner acquire the necessary knowledge. Moreover, since my dwell- 
ing (the town having no school-house) was better adapted for a school 
than that of my competitor, they had appointed me school-master. 

"No doubt, I felt happy at this unexpected decision, although I 
had no reason to be very proud of my salary, which was only one 
dollar per week; while my vanquished opponent was appointed po- 
liceman, with one and a half dollars per week." 

Kriisi was thus destined, at the age of eighteen, to take upon his 
shoulders a heavier burden than that which he had just laid down. 
This will be understood when we consider that he had to instruct 
about one hundred children of both sexes, in a small room, and 
that he had neither experience nor the knowledge of the means by 
which order and discipline are secured. Many teachers in his situa- 
tion would have acted uj)on the principle of the proverb, " Poor 
pay, poor work;" but Kriisi was governed by higher motives. 
Assisted by the clergyman of the village, he soon succeeded in get- 
ting his school in good order. While working faithfully for the in- 
terests of his pupils, he sought every opportunity to gain informa- 
tion and to perfect himself in the details of his work. His school 
was soon considered one of the best in the place, although his meth- 
ods of teaching were but slight modifications of the old mechanical 
routine. 

For six years Kriisi thus conscientiously pursued his humble call- 
ing, when the current of his life was again changed. 

The year 1799 was a hard one for Switzerland. Foreign armies 
were stationed along the Rhine, which forms the boundary between 
that country and Austria ; and the whole of Europe was in political 
commotion. In consequence of this warlike state of things the east- 
ern portions of the country suffered greatly from stagnation of trade 
and from actual famine. The western cantons, being less exposed to 
the invasions of the enemy and in possession of a more fertile soil, 
suffered less, and, therefore, were able to send assistance to their un- 
fortunate brethren on the eastern side. 

This assistance was not merely of a pecuniary character. The min- 
ister of Gais received an invitation from his friend, Fischer of Berne, 
to send a number of poor children to that canton, for whose support 
and education he would be responsible. At the same time, he ex- 



70 PESTALOZZI. 

pressed a wish to have a young man sent with them, who was able 
and willing to receive a systematic course of instruction in order to 
teach them. 

Kriisi says: "As soon as I was made acquainted with the contents 
of the letter, an inner voice told me not to let such an opportunity 
for improvement pass. Making known my wish, I was selected for 
the work, and twenty-six of these young exiles were put in my care. 
To defray our expenses for a distance of one hundred and twenty 
miles, which, at our rate of traveling, it would take six days to per- 
form, the selectmen intrusted me with forty-four dollars. We were, 
however, every-where hospitably received, especially at Zurich, where 
I had the pleasure of seeing the celebrated Lavater, whom I revered 
as a being of a higher order. 

"On the sixth day we arrived at Burgdorf, the place of our desti- 
nation, and presented ourselves for inspection on the square before 
the town -house. The benevolent citizens of the place received us 
there, and took the children to their respective homes. I was in- 
vited to Fischer's house. My first emotion was gratitude toward 
God, who had conducted me and my little band into a safe harbor, 
and had filled the hearts of so many with active benevolence. I 
had not been obliged even to touch the forty-four dollars which had 
been given me for traveling expenses; but had more than that sum, 
all of which I sent back to my employers, who were just enough to 
return it, as a token of their approbation of my services. 

"I thought that I was to learn the art of teaching from Fischer, 
for it was by him that I had been invited. But 'man proposes and 
God disposes.' Fischer, as Providence ruled, was only the medium 
to lead me to Pestalozzi. My benefactor was soon afterward seized 
by a violent fever, and died in a few days. The first one who an- 
nounced the sad news to me was Pestalozzi. He, however, accom- 
panied it with the kind invitation to unite my school with his, and 
to work with him in future. This proposal I accepted, and we 
obtained the free use of the then vacant castle for our school. 

"Owing to six years' experience in a district school, I had some 
advantages over Pestalozzi, especially in matters of order and disci- 
pline, which he, my friend and master, readily acknowledged. I 
was filled with esteem for the sublimity of his views, encouraged by 
his confidence, and made happy by his love. On the other hand, I 
could not approve of some of his ways of teaching. He had a pow- 
erful chest, and whoever did not possess the same could not imitate 
his high-toned voice ; and even if they could, I should have wished 
a more subdued tone, both on his part and on that of his pupils. 



HERMANN KRUSI. 71 

" There were, also, points in his method with which I could not 
agree. He required that two subjects should be taught at the same 
time to the same class. Exercises in language were practiced during 
a lesson in drawing or writing. To me it seemed wiser to keep the 
undivided attention of the children upon one subject: this dissimi- 
larity of views never interrupted our harmony, but served, on the 
contrary, to set the truth in a clearer light. 

"The teachers in our school were four in number, and thrown to- 
gether by a singular combination of circumstances: — the principal, 
who combined with the high reputation of an ingenious author the 
less flattering one of being a dreamer and enthusiast; a private school 
teacher, who, after a neglected childhood, had been suddenly thrown 
into school work, and had tried many experiments in the most ap- 
proved methods without being satisfied with the results; a book- 
binder, who in his leisure hours had tried to satisfy his longing for 
music and drawing; and a village school-master, who had done his 
work as well as he was able without preparation for it. 

" It is not to be wondered at that many, looking at our humble 
association, and considering that none of us had money or fame, 
should have a moderate opinion of our undertaking and have pre- 
dicted its speedy downfall. Yet we did not fail." 

Kriisi's mind, simple and practical in its character, was specially 
directed to the arrangement of the elements of science in their due 
order. For this work, he was well adapted. The general plan he 
derived from Pestalozzi's principles, but the details he worked out for 
himself. 

At the suggestion of Pestalozzi, he prepared a course of Mental 
Arithmetic on the objective plan. He also prepared the necessary 
means of illustrating the tables of units and fractions, the latter based 
upon the divison of a rectangle. The teaching of Arithmetic on this 
plan produced a rapidity and accuracy in the computation of numbers 
which appeared almost miraculous to those who had been accustomed 
only to the old system of ciphering according to given rules. Some of 
the pupils educated at Burgdorf, such as Ramsauer and Schmid, gave 
to this branch a more extended application, for which they obtained 
considerable celebrity, while Kriisi, who was the real originator of 
the system, modestly resigned to them his share of the honors. 

The intimate relations which existed between Kriisi and his vener- 
able friend at this period are shown in an extract taken from " How 
Gertrude Teaches her Children," in which we find an account of his 
early experiences: 

" Kriisi was not contented to teach his pupils reading and writing 



72 PESTALOZZI. 

merely. He worked to cultivate their minds. The new reading- 
book which had been introduced by the minister contained religious 
truths in short paragraphs ; various facts of Physical Science, Natural 
History, and Geography ; and interesting information on the political 
constitution of the country. Kriisi observed that when the pastor 
read this book with the children he questioned them at the end of 
each paragraph, in order to see if they actually understood what 
they had read. He undoubtedly succeeded in this way in making 
most of them perfectly familiar with the contents of the reading- 
book. But this was only because he adapted his questions to the 
answers which were found ready-made in the book, and because he 
neither demanded nor expected any other answers than those winch 
the book had put into the children's mouths long before any question 
was devised to elicit them. 

"It is, however, to be observed that this, or any other similar 
method of catechising, gives no exercise, to the mind. It is a mere 
analysis of words, relieving the child, as far as words are concerned, 
from the confusion of a wdiole sentence, the different parts of which 
are presented separately and distinctly. It can, therefore, only 
have merit when used as a preparatory step to the further exercise 
of clearing up the ideas represented by those words. The latter exer- 
cise, commonly termed ' Socratic instruction,' has only of late been 
mixed up with the business of catechising. 

" It was afterward required of Kriisi to combine this narrow analy- 
sis of words with the. Socratic method, which takes up the subject in 
a higher sense. An uncultivated mind does not go to those depths 
from which Socrates derived spirit and truth ; and it was, therefore, 
quite natural that in his new system of questioning Kriisi should not 
succeed. He had no basis for his questions, nor had the children any 
for their answers. They had no language for things which they knew 
not, and no books which furnished them with a well-framed answer 
to every question, whether they understood it or not. 

• imagining that every good school-master must be 
able by his questions to elicit correct and precise answers, he attrib- 
uted his failure entirely to his own want of skill. 

" Fischer exerted himself to introduce Kriisi to different depart- 
ments of science, that he might be able to teach them ; but the 
latter felt more and more that, with books alone, he could not make 
progress, because on every subject he was destitute of that prelimi- 
nary knowledge which, to a greater or less degree, books presuppose. 
On the other hand, he witnessed the effect which I produced upon 
the children by leading them back to the first elements of human 



HERMANN KEUSI. 7-'> 

knowledge, and by dwelling on these elements with unwearied pa- 
tience. These observations showed him the true causes of his fail- 
ure, and, by degrees, his whole view of instruction changed. He 
now perceived clearly that the tendency of my experiments was to 
develop the internal power of the child, rather than to give him a 
knowledge of facts, which, nevertheless, was obtained as a necessary 
consequence ; and, seeing the application of the principle to the de- 
velopment of different branches, he came to the conviction that my 
method lays a foundation for knowledge and further progress, such 
as would be impossible to obtain by any other. 

" He found that even at the earliest period of instruction, a feeling 
of energy was not so much produced — for it exists in every mind not 
enervated by artificial treatment — as kept alive by beginning at the 
very easiest tasks, and continuing them to a point of practical perfec- 
tion before I proceeded. This was not done in a desultory manner, 
but, by gradual and almost insensible additions to what the child had 
already acquired. With this method we have not to push the chil- 
dren, but to lead them. He became 

every day better fitted to second me in my experiments, and with 
his assistance I completed, in a short time, a Spelling -Book and an 
Arithmetic on my own plan." 

In 1803 the Institution at Burgdorf was closed. Kriisi re- 
mained with Pestalozzi during his brief vacation, and accompanied 
him to Yverdon, when the school was reopened at that place. In 
his " Recollections," Kriisi gives the following sketch of the spirit 
and character of the school there: "A new era began with the ar- 
rival of the teachers and pupils from Miinchenbuehsee. The family 
life which gave such a charm to Burgdorf could no longer exist. 
The Institution passed from childhood into manhood, possessed of 
greater powers, but also beset with more dangers. I hardly dare 
give a detailed picture of its life and action. It had its grand feat- 
ures, but also some that were humiliating. The school rose to such 
a degree of importance that it became a model for all Europe ; but 
it subsequently took that unfortunate direction which undermined it, 
and rendered its continuance impossible. Its outward form only was 
doomed to perish : the great principles which animated it are des- 
tined to immortality." 

Kriisi's work at Yverdon is so interwoven with that of Pestalozzi 
that it is impossible to consider it separately. They were like father 
and son. The estimate that Pestalozzi placed upon the efficiency 
and faithfulness of his co-laborer may be gathered from the following 
passage taken from a New-year's address : 



74 PESTALOZZI. 

"0 Kriisi, mayest thou continue in the fullness of thy love! 
Amiable and child-like amidst lovely children, thou dost found my 
house on the spirit of holy love. At thy side and under the influ- 
ence of thy attractive powers the children in our house no longer feel 
the absence of father and mother. Thou solvest in thyself the doubt 
whether an educator can be a substitute for parents. Continue with 
increased energy : it is on thee and on thy influence that I build 
great hopes. It is not enough to know the path toward the mental 
cultivation of man : one must also know the soft, gentle step with 
which the mother enters the sanctuary of childhood. Thou knowest 
it, and keepest the child longer in this lovely path than most mothers 
are able to do. Perfect thyself in thy power and give us the ele- 
ments of a child's knowledge with that inimitable combination of 
precision and simplicity which thou possessest. Thou hast brought 
me Niederer as thy brother, and hast lived with him in unity of 
heart and purpose. Let the bond of association be constantly re- 
newed. Let us work together hand in hand. You are the first sup- 
porters of my house, the only ones left to me. I am not always of 
the same opinion with you, but my soul clings to you, and I should 
not know my house if your united power should forsake it. But you 
will not forsake it, ye firstlings of my method." 

Christmas, New-year's, and the 12th of January — Pestalozzi's 
birthday — were kept as holidays in the Institution. As these 
days all occur in winter, they could not take from the stiffened soil 
those children of warmth and light, leaves and flowers, of which 
wreaths and garlands are woven ; but the pupils supplied this defi- 
ciency with tokens of gratitude, which at the same time tended to 
develop their ingenuity and taste. A description of such a day, 
taken from Kriisi's private journal, gives us a vivid picture of the 
festivities of one of these occasions : 

"The birthday of our beloved father was a glorious one, and rich 
in seeds and fruits for the growth and strengthening of the mind and 
heart. The decorations in the third and fourth class rooms were 
particularly ingenious. In the third room was a transparency of 
Neuhof, the village of Birr, and the highland of Brunegg. Oppo- 
site to this stood Pestalozzi's bust crowned with a wreath of laurels 
and immortelles. On the right of the bust was a transparency, with 
this inscription, in German : ' May God, who gave thee to us, long 
bless thy work, and us through thee;' on the left, in French: 'Hom- 
age to our Father! The pure joy of our hearts proclaims our hap- 
piness.' 

"The room of the fourth class was arranged to represent a land- 



HERMANN KRUSI. 75 

scape, containing cultivated meadows, and a rock with a spring rising 
at its base, from which a brook flowed and fertilized the land. Near 
this was a poor straw-thatched hut, and over its door w r ere these 
words: 'May his age be peaceful.' In another place stood an altar 
over which hung a transparency ; on one side was the motto, ' Let 
poverty remember him,' and on the other, ' May we be like him.' 
Upon the altar stood a collection box and a letter written in the 
name of the members of the class. 

"As soon as Father Pestalozzi entered the room, a little genius 
came forward from the hut to meet him, and gave him the box and 
the letter. I was requested to read it, but surprised and affected by 
its contents, I could hardly do so. It read — 

"'Dear Father Pestalozzi: 

" ' It is very little which we, the present and 
former members of this class, have saved to offer you as a testimony 
of our love in behalf of the poor ; but it comes from sincere hearts, 
and if it pleases you our object will be attained. It may express to 
you our purpose to do still more for the poor, and, like yourself, to 
find our happiness in that, of others. May we use well the time of 
our stay here, and, by our efforts, ever more deserve your love. May 
you be happy among us. Full of gratitude to God, we embrace you 
affectionately, with the ardent wish that you may live to see us fulfill 
our promise.' 

"The money given amounted to fifty-two francs. Besides the dis- 
plays of the children, the printers furnished a transparency bearing 
these words : ' May it not be your life, which is in future to be put 
under the press, but only the ripe and beautiful fruit of your 
thoughts.'" 

In 1812, Pestalozzi lay dangerously ill for some time, and was care- 
fully nursed by Kriisi. Extracts from letters written during that 
time to the lady whom he afterward married, show the pure attach- 
ment of Kriisi for his friend and father, and how it was reciprocated : 

"Our father is remarkable even in sickness. He fervently wishes 
to get well again in order to live for his work ; yet he also looks 
calmly into the face of death. Lately, when two doctors stood at his 
bedside consulting whether to send for a distinguished physician at 
Lausanne, he asked, with a serene look, if he had to settle his worldly 
affairs. It elevates my soul to see him look with such resignation 
from the past to eternity. I pray God he may be spared to us, but 
I can not tell you how I rejoice to see him preserve his peace of soul 
under such trying circumstances." 



7(5 PESTALOZZI. 

When his recovery was beyond a doubt, Kriisi wrote, in the joy 
of his heart: "If, in the inscrutable ways of Divine Providence, he 
had died, I would not, for the world, have been denied the privilege 
of being with and nursing him. Whenever he finds opportunity 
he speaks of you, and blesses our union. You know my faith in the 
blessed Word. It shall also build our house — not one of wood or 
stone, but one of peace, love, and sanctified endeavor." 

From these cheering tokens of mutual esteem and confidence, we 
are obliged to pass to scenes of quite a different character. It is a 
sad fact in human history, that men who have been most intimately 
associated by mutual friendship and sympathy have often finally be- 
come estranged from each other. This estrangement, however, is not 
always necessarily caused by the loss of mutual esteem, or by the 
un kindness of one toward the other. It sometimes results from 
their espousing different sides of a controversy commenced by others. 

Kriisi had to endure this bitter experience in the contest which 
arose between Niederer and his colleagues on the one side, and Schmid 
on the other. The latter had unfortunately won the support of Pes- 
talozzi, and, in his most arrogant and domineering spirit, expressed a 
determination to carry out his most selfish ends, even at the risk of 
losing the best teachers and friends of the Institution. Kriisi endeav- 
ored to act as peace-maker, but was met with insult and derision. 
In 1817, he was obliged, by his own sense of honor and duty, 
although with a bleeding heart, to send in his resignation to Pesta- 
lozzi, which he did in the following language : 

"Father, the time of enjoying thy presence is jrnst. I must leave 
thy Institution as now conducted, if I am not to lose forever my 
courage and strength to live for thy work. For all thou hast been 
to me, and all I have been able to be to thee, I thank God. For all 
my short-comings I pray God and thee to forgive me." 

The touching simplicity of this farewell shows the affection with 
Avhich Kriisi clung to the better self of Pestalozzi, and his deep-felt 
pain at his infatuation. 

Simple and unassuming in his manner, never obtruding his serv- 
ices Avhere they were not wanted, Kriisi ever chose to suffer in- 
justice himself rather than to become aggressive or vindictive, and 
so wound the sensibilities of those he loved. Nevertheless, he could 
not sacrifice his principles and honor on the altar of friendship. 

After leaving Pestalozzi's Institution, Kriisi started a private ; 
school at Yverdon, which was patronized by pupils from many 
parts of Europe. Although his school was flourishing and his occu- 
pation congenial, in 1822 he accepted a call from his native Appeii- 



HERMANN K 11 US I. 77 

zell, to take charge of the cantonal School at Trogen. Here hun- 
dreds of boys were educated under his gentle but firm direction. 
Although no friend of politics or mere party questions, he was one 
of the foremost to raise his voice in behalf of a thorough school re- 
form, the first condition of which is to have the teachers educated 
for their important calling. To his great joy, in 1833 a Normal 
School was decreed, and he was elected principal. Guided by a long 
experience in the theory and practice of teaching, he devoted him- 
self to this congenial task with his accustomed ardor and skill. In 
the heart of his native village Gais, surrounded by beautiful mount- 
ain scenery, and aided by his faithful sons and daughters, he divided 
his time between the school, his family, his literary labors, and the 
cultivation of a garden, of which he was passionately fond. His 
venerable face, which bespoke a high degree of intelligence and 
goodness, seemed always radiant with happiness and contentment. 

In 1843, many persons who had been educated by him assembled 
to celebrate his sixty-eighth birthday, which was also the fiftieth an- 
niversary of the commencement of his school work. They presented 
him, as a token of their gratitude, a large wine-cup of massive sil- 
ver, bearing this inscription : 

Dem Vater Kriisi, 
auf seinen 68. Geburtstag den 12. Marz, 1843, 
von seinen Zoglingen im Lehrberufe.* 

The surprise and pleasure of seeing so many of his former pupils — 
some of whom had come a great distance — almost overcame him, 
and Avith emotion he bestowed upon them his paternal blessing. 

Until April of the following year he continued his lessons in the 
schools. His last literary work was to collect and arrange his poems, 
many of which had been written for the melodies of his friend, Rev. 
Samuel Weishaupt.f These poems, with a short sketch of his life, 
were published subsequent to his death. Kriisi died, after a short 
illness, on the evening of the 25th of July, 1844. 

To the funeral, friends came from far and near to pay their tribute 
of respect and love to the departed. In the almost unending proces- 
sion were many who had been his pupils during his fifty-one years 



*To Father Kriisi, on his 68th birthday, the 12th of March, 1843, from his 
pupils in the teachers' calling. 

t Pfarrer Weishaupt, well known in Switzerland and Germany as the man 
who first organized the Mdnnerchore (choruses of men), died at Knoxville, Tenn., 
in 1874. 



78 PESTALOZZI. 

of teaching. Time had already whitened the hair of some of these, 
while others still looked into the future with the freshness of rosy 
youth. 

At the house, and again at the grave, the pupils formed a circle 
about the coffin, and, with tearful eyes and sad hearts, sang their last 
farewell to their beloved master. 

Eight ministers were present at the service held in the church. 
Pfarrer Weishaupt, of Gais, who officiated, paid a graceful tribute to 
his friend in the following words : 

"Ah! they have buried a good man, and to me, to me, he was 
moi'e. He was my friend. I will not say to you, Father Kriisi 
is dead ! No ; as living I would rather place the eternalized one 
(Verewigten) before you! I will not harrow your feelings with the 
thought that you have lost him ! No ; rather would I show to you 
that you possess him continually, that he is ever before you in his 
work ! " 



CHAPTER II. 

JOHANNES NIEDERER. 




TOHANNES NIEDERER was born in the canton of Appenzell in 
*J 1780. In his boyhood he received only the education which the 
village school afforded. Later, he entered college to study Theology. 
In 1799, having completed his studies, he returned to his native can- 
ton and was chosen pastor at Buhler. A year after, he left this place 
for Sennwald, a small town in the canton of St. Gallen. Convinced 
that the frightful convulsions of the first French Revolution were the 
result of ignorance and a consequent confusion of ideas, he devoted 
much time in both places to education. 

In his correspondence with his young friend Tobler, we find some 

(79) 



80 PESTALOZZI. 

details of his plans and struggles during that period. Not the least 
interesting part of these letters is the faithful sketch of his character 
which they give, and which will partly explain how it was possible 
that the same man, who was instrumental in building up the fame of 
Pestalozzi, was afterward placed in a position of personal antagonism to 
him and his evil adviser, Schmid. 

In one of these letters he says: "I was not born to deal leniently 
with weak and vicious sentiments ; but rather to strike down vice with 
a club. Instead of coaxing forth noble purposes, or developing them 
step by step, I am inclined to force them out. Have I, then, any 
hope to accomplish something great? Am I not myself the greatest 
obstacle to my success?" 

In another letter he justifies himelf for having left the parish after 
so short a stay. The reasons he gives indicate no ordinary mind and 
character: "I thirst for activity; my heart, which was not created 
for repose, longs for a new sphere of labor, or, at least, for the means 
by which to renew the energies of my soul. Such a sphere is, un- 
fortunately, denied me. Never contented with that which is, and 
restless in my plans, I am disgusted at the monotony of my life ; and 
any change, even without improvement, will be a blessing. As soon 
as I have sounded my situation, and, seeing the limits of my expec- 
tation, am compelled to say, 'Thus far, and no farther,' the wings 
of my activity droop, and every object loses its charms for me. My 
mind is attracted by what is uncertain, yet possible. That which is 
uncommon fixes my attention. A dim cloud, which hovers around 
me and lets me anticipate but not see paradisical heights or dark 
abysses, drags my mind from its slumber and makes it rise in bold 
flights: — then am I in my element, even amid storms. Where the 
peace of others ceases, mine often begins. The blow which crushes 
their energies, rouses my powers, and shows me the way to climb to 
something yet higher. Here you have the whole key of my exist- 
ence, and it will explain to you many apparent contradictions in my 
life." 

From other passages we gather that Niederer constantly made plans 
for the improvement of his flock, and that he shared the experience 
of many a philanthropist, in finding the people very reluctant to ac- 
cept the blessings intended for them. During the time of his pastor- 
ate in Sennwald he became acquainted with the writings of Pestalozzi, 
which he greatly admired. In " Leonard and Gertrude," especially, 
he found ideas expressed which he had secretly treasured in his own 
heart ; and the interest for their author was intensified by the accounts 
of the school and its management, which he received from his personal 



JOHANNES NIEDERER. 81 

friends, Tobler and Kriisi. Stimulated by their glowing descriptions, 
he visited Burgdorf, in order to witness the practical application of 
the new system. He seemed at once to comprehend the vastness of 
the principles, and to anticipate the benefits which would arise from 
their general adoption. He saw education with its roots deep set in 
the domestic circle, growing upward with vigorous stalk, and branch- 
ing out into all the purposes and activities of life. 

For those who may doubt whether a young man of twenty-one years 
could have gathered from Pestalozzi's humble and fragmentary work 
such expansive views of its application, we append the following ex- 
tract from a letter written by him to Pestalozzi on his return to his 
parish : "I am daily more convinced of the excellence of your method; 
yet I sometimes ask, in the words of our best teacher, 'Thinkest thou 
that I shall find faith on this earth?' But, though ignorance and 
vice may retard truth for a time, they can never suppress it. Every 
day I see new and surprising results of your method which I hardly 
dare express. 

" Many inexplicable problems now seem solved in my mind. The 
riddles and contradictions of human nature vanish, and I see nothing 
but harmony. You have triumphantly proved that popular enlight- 
enment is a possibility. I see how, through it, men will arrive at a 
clear appreciation of their destinies, rights, and duties. I see the dan- 
gers of half-civilization and super-refinement vanish, since it satisfies 
the needs of man in his highest and lowest conditions. I see how 
nature becomes reconciled to science. 

"Your method will render the learned man more useful through 
the application of his knowledge, and will cause the unlearned one to 
reflect on his condition, relation, anil duties. It will give to the child 
the free and unrestrained use of his powers. The usual order of things 
becomes reversed, and faith is turned to seeing, hearing into judging 
and knowing. Thus streams of light will illumine the dark abodes of 
humanity. The unhallowed dominion of superstition, of despotism, and 
especially the sad conflict between faith and reason — that conflict 
which has broken so many noble hearts — will be stayed. 

" On what unpretending hinges do we find these gates of bliss sus- 
pended? On the fact that the child relies on perception, and the 
teacher simply puts matter for judgment before his eyes. This fact I 
recognize in its full importance as one of the greatest blessings which 
God has granted the human race; as a condition sine <[h<i mm of the 
progress of reason, since it raises the child above the prejudices of the 
teacher, and saves the human race from the penalty of remaining 
forever in a state of tutelage. Friend, my heart overflows with joy 
P.— 6. 



82 PESTALOZZI. 

and gratitude. Already you have sown the good seed: the harvest 
will not fail." 

The freshness and depth of these views so impressed Pestalozzi that 
he made an immediate effort to secure Niederer's services. Little per- 
suasion was required to induce him to accept the situation offered. 
Following the voice of conviction, he gave up his situation and income 
as a clergyman to unite his fortunes with a man whom he saw strug- 
gling against poverty and prejudice. He did this solely that thereby 
he might work more effectually for the interests of humanity. 

As there are no records left which show that Niederer taught any 
particular branch in the Institution, it may be asked for what object 
he had been called to Burgdorf. Blochmann, a teacher and friend 
of Pestalozzi, says in regard to this : "As teacher, he was intrusted 
with the religious instruction of the upper classes; he gave lectures 
on methods for the benefit of the adults and visitors, and from time 
to time he preached ; he presented to the public the position of the 
Institution with regard to education, and defended it against unjust 
attacks; he shared with Pestalozzi the extended correspondence, and 
after his marriage with the gifted Rosetta Kasthofer, in 1813, he 
stood at the head of the girls' department of the Institution." 

At the most flourishing period of Pestalozzi's labors, Niederer un- 
doubtedly exercised a great power over him, for he respected his su- 
periority in knowledge and in philosophical discrimination. Biber 
draws the following admirable parallel between Niederer's mind and 
character and that of his venerable friend: "His mind, early accus- 
tomed to soar above the systems and creeds of men, had penetrated 
through the clouds of learning and the vail of the letter to the bright- 
ness of true wisdom — to an apprehension of the substance. He was 
distinguished by universality, clearness, and precision of ideas, and an 
uncommon power of abstraction. Facts had no value in his estima- 
tion, only in so far as they led to principles; and he distinguished 
with eagle eye the hollow metaphysics of the sophist from the plain 
language of truth. The assistance of such a man was necessary to 
Pestalozzi, whose genius was, like the dark summer cloud, pregnant 
with light, hut incapable of emitting it, except in sudden flashes, sep- 
arated by intervals of deep obscurity. Pestalozzi never was able, often 
as he attempted it, tu explain his ideas fully and clearly to others, or 
even to himself. His language, especially on abstruse subjects, resem- 
bled the wavering glimmer of a lamp through the gloom of a forest, 
which, while it presents to the eye a few objects in transient light, 
harasses the imagination by a thousand changeable forms and shades, 
moving to and fro through the nightly mist. Niederer, though not 



JOHANNES NIEDERER. 83 

endowed with that creative genius which would call ;i world of new 
ideas into existence, possessed, to an eminent degree, steadiness of 
vision, depth of thought, acuteness of judgment, and perspicuity of 
expression." 

This testimony may appear not sufficiently impartial, and somewhat 
overdrawn. It is, however, less enthusiastic than the tribute which 
Pestalozzi himself pays to his worth, when he says, in his New-year's 
address of 1811: "Niederer, thou first of my sons, what shall I wish 
for thee? How can I thank thee? Thou dost penetrate into the 
depths of truth. The holy secret of affection guides thy course ; and 
with a hold front thou throwest down the gauntlet to him who, sneak- 
ing in tortuous ways, deviates from the path of rectitude, and cares 
hut for effect. Friend, thou art my support ; the care of my house 
dwells in thy heart ; from thine eyes dart rays of light, which are 
my salvation, although in my weakness I sometimes fear them. Let 
peace dwell in thy soul, and let not thy passionate nature influence 
thy spirit ; then will a mighty blessing flow from the fullness of thy 
genius and heart upon my imperfect work." 

The allusion, "throwest down the gauntlet to him," refers to the 
time when, in consequence of a report made by a committee of the Gov- 
ernment, an article was published by the learned Haller of Gdttingen, 
wherein he accused the Institution of Pestalozzi of being hostile to the 
Government, the aristocracy, the clergy, and, in consequence, to religion. 
Against this calumny Niederer wrote a spirited answer, in two octavo 
A T olumes, of which the first was chiefly devoted to a vindication of the 
principles of Pestalozzi ; while the second contained a variety of doc- 
uments, which served to expose the malignancy and baseness of the 
attacks. In consequence of some unguarded expressions, this defense 
drew 7 upon him another attack from a dignitary of the Church. Nie- 
derer's reply, by which he mercilessly demolished the arguments of 
his opponents and vindicated the system which had been attacked, is 
a masterpiece of dialectic skill and logical power. 

During this controversy, representations were made to Pestalozzi 
that Niederer was influenced by no high motives, and hence was un- 
worthy of his regard. Not wishing to receive praise at the expense 
of his friends, he vindicated manfully the noble and disinterested 
character of his champion by making the following statement : 

"Niederer has, indeed, peculiarities which, being directly opposed 
to mine, I find it diffirult to endure ; but his friendship is beyond all 
I have ever experienced or dreamed. What more can a man do for 
Ins friend than to abandon a well-secured profession and place him- 
self in a position full of uncertainty, disappointment, difficulty, and 



84 PESTALOZZI. 

danger? This is what Niederer has done for me. When he joined 
us he was the only man connected with the school who had a literary 
education. 

" Most of my friends were only interested in my personal welfare. 
Their assistance was oil poured into my wounds. They afforded me 
happy hours of friendship, such as I shall never enjoy with Niederer; 
but they were hours of mere personal sympathy. The debt I owe 
him is of a different kind. His friendship is shown in his whole life, 
in his persevering efforts in the service of my cause, and in Ids con- 
stant struggle to fit himself for my work. Even his opposition to 
me, where he finds my personal wishes or inclinations at variance 
with my principles, proves the noble, pure, and uncommon character 
of his friendship. If he would resist less, he would love me less." 

The sentiments contained in the above declaration, testifying as 
they do to the honorable character of Niederer, contain, however, 
indications of the fact that Pestalozzi's friendship for him was not 
founded so much upon sympathetic attraction of heart and feeling 
as upon gratitude and respect for his superior intellect. Those who 
knew Niederer personally were aware that there were sharp edges to 
his character which could not fail to injure the feelings of susceptible 
persons. He could scarcely bear contradiction when he believed he 
defended the right. Whenever he saw vice and falsehood he was, as 
he confesses in one of his letters, rather disposed to " strike with the 
club " than to use the more gentle and winning weapons of forbear- 
ance. 

When Pestalozzi began gradually to defer to the advice of Schmid, 
and change the character of the school, it roused the excitable temper 
of Niederer; for he had no confidence in the fidelity or honesty of the 
adviser, and he saw the gulf into which Pestalozzi would plunge him- 
self, his fame, and the Institution. In the controversy that ensued 
the teachers were nearly a unit against Schmid, greatly preferring 
their own imperfect organization to one more systematic founded upon 
absolute authority, — one in which obedience was compelled from with- 
out instead of being voluntarily rendered through love, respect, and a 
true sense of duty. They claimed, and very justly, that the proposed 
changes violated the most fundamental principles of the system which 
Pestalozzi had established and upon which the school was founded. 
They further claimed that changes so revolutionary would deprive 
I he school of all the characteristics which had given it celebrity, and 
would be a confession that the principles which had guided them in 
the pasf were false and illusory. 

Pestalozzi, however, bending under the weight of seventy years; 



JOHANNES NIEDERER. 85 

weary of the cares and responsibilities of his position ; conscious of 
his own want of administrative talent ; misled by the flattering rep- 
resentation and apparent honesty of his evil adviser; and persuaded 
that he could safely trust the guidance of the school to younger and 
more skillful hands, and so be rid of his overwhelming burdens, — 
refused to listen to the protests of his teachers, and persisted in carry- 
ing out fully the new plans. This refusal caused the resignation of 
the German teachers, and their example was soon after followed by 
Kriisi and Niederer. 

At the final termination of Niederer's connection with the school, 
an angry and protracted controversy arose between him and Schmid 
in regard to financial matters ; but the teachers of the school, who 
knew best about the matter, were nearly unanimous in favor of 
Niederer; and public opinion, which usually bases its decisions on the 
character of the contending parties, was clearly on the same side. 

After his separation from Pestalozzi, Niederer and his wife opened 
at Yverdon a boarding-school for girls. This school obtained a repu- 
tation for its high moral tone and sound intellectual culture. Madame 
Niederer's book, "Glances into the Nature of Female Education," is 
an earnest and able statement of the importance of extending to girls 
an opportunity for the same liberal culture that is enjoyed by the 
other sex. As the management of the Institution was chiefly in the 
hands ol* Madame Niederer and her assistants, it was hoped by the 
friends of education that Niederer would employ his leisure in 
preparing the biography of Pestalozzi, for which task no other man 
was so well fitted. But the contemplated labor was never performed. 
This neglect was, in part, caused by some of the late writings of Pes- 
talozzi, in which he seemed to disparage and almost disown Niederer's 
great services ; and, in part, by a feeling which Niederer shared in 
common with all the first teachers of the school — a reluctance to de- 
scribe the events in which they themselves had been the principal 
actors. 

After a residence of more than twenty years at Yverdon, Niederer 
and his wife transferred their Institution to Geneva, where they could 
have the advantages of refined society and a wider sphere of action 
and influence. There he contentedly spent the declining years of his 
life. He died on the 2d of December, in 1843. 

The composure he felt when upon his death-bed, and the sentiments 
he uttered during his last moments, are a sufficient refutation of the 
charges of his enemies, that his religious belief was hollow and un- 
real. "I am more fortunate than Herder," said he, "who wished 
that some great thoughts might enter his mind. God gives me great 



86 PESTALOZZI. 

thoughts, and my soul is filled with admiration and thanks." Again 
he said: "Many go to the other world complaining that their mission 
has not been fulfilled. Mine you will find expressed in the words 
which I wish to have written on my tombstone ; " and, with a last 
glow of fervor beaming from his eyes, he uttered solemnly the follow- 
ing verse of a German hymn : 

" Ueber Staub und Welt erhaben, 

Werd ich wieder auferstehen ; 
Siehe da, ich werd begraben, 

Schoner aus der Graft zu gehen. 
Hallelnja! mit Enziicken 

Sefc' ich Erd' und Hinimel an! 
Weil der Tod mich nnr beglucken, 

Aber nicht zerstoren kann." 



Freed from earth's unhallowed glitter, 

Christ bids me to rise again ; 
If Death's cup appears but bitter, 

It is balm for every pain. 
Hallelujah ! with emotion 

Do I look to yonder sky, 
For my death is but promotion 

To blest regions there on high. 



CHAPTER III 
GUSTAV TOBLEE. 




LIKE Kriisi and Niederer, Tobler, who was born in 17fi9, was a 
native of the canton of Appenzell, where he received the ordi- 
nary instruction of a village school, until his tenth or twelfth year. 
From this time, until he was twenty-two, he assisted his father, but 
employed his leisure in study. He then began his classical studies 
in preparation for the ministry, and soon after entered college, but 
was unable to complete the course. In order to obtain funds he en- 
gaged as private tutor in one of the aristocratic families of Basel. 
In preparation for his new task, he studied the most noted educa- 

(87) 



«5 PESTALOZZI. 

tional systems of his time, and, like Kriisi, entered into the labyrinths 
and deceptive mazes of catechetical teaching. But when, through the 
enthusiastic report of Kriisi, he became acquainted with Pestalozzi's 
views, he was at once impressed with their truth. He had previously 
read li Leonard and Gertrude," and his great admiration for this work 
had made him favorably disposed toward its author ; therefore, when 
Kriisi came to Basel expressly to invite him to join the school at 
Burgdorf, he eagerly accepted the offer, and at once commenced his 
labors. 

At Pestalozzi's request Tobler wrote an account of his life previous to 
his coming to Burgdorf; and from this sketch we make copious ex- 
tracts, in which many a fellow-sufferer may find his own story told : 

"After teaching six years I found that the result of my labors by 
no means equaled my expectations. The energy and mental power 
of the children did not increase according to the measure of my exer- 
tions, nor even in proportion to the extent of the positive information 
which they acquired ; nor did the knowledge which I imparted to 
them appear to have a sufficiently strong hold upon their minds, or 
to be well connected in its various parts. 

"I made use of the best books that were, at that time, to be had; 
but they contained many words that were unintelligible to the chil- 
dren, and ideas far beyond the sphere of their experiences ; and, con- 
squently, formed so strong a contrast to their usual mode of thinking, 
feeling, and speaking, that it took too much time to explain all that 
they could not understand. This process was in itself tedious, and 
did no more toward advancing their true development than is done 
toward dispelling darkness by introducing a few detached rays of 
light into a dark room, or into the obscurity of a dense, impenetra- 
ble mist. These books descended to the profoundest depths of hu- 
man knowledge, or ascended above the clouds, even to the uppermost 
heavens of eternal glory, without giving opportunity to rest the feet 
on the solid ground of mother earth, on which it is absolutely neces- 
sary that men should stand if they would learn Avalking before flying; 
and, moreover, if it is indeed to be flying, wings must have time to 
grow. 

"A vague idea of the truth induced me, from time to time, to 
entertain my younger pupils with matters of immediate perception, 
and to clear up the ideas of the elder ones by conversations. The 
result of the former plan was, that the little ones acquired a knowl- 
edge of various facts not generally met with at their age. I endeav- 
ored to combine this mode of instruction with the methods found in 
the most approved works, all of which were written in such a man- 



GUSTAV TOBLER. 89 

ner as to presuppose a knowledge of language — the very thing 
which the children were to acquire by them. The consequence was, 
that my Socratic conversations with the elder pupils led to no better 
results than all other explanations of words by words which the chil- 
dren do not comprehend. The explanation which they seemed to 
understand to-day was soon completely obliterated from their minds; 
and the more pains I took to make every thing plain to them, the 
less did they evince energy to work for themselves. 

"At that time, Fischer, in several of his letters, gave me a de- 
tailed account of Pestalozzi's work. From this, I saw that the end 
at which I was aiming could be reached without my circuitous 
means ; that most of my difficulties arose out of the very nature of 
the plan which I followed ; and that the artificial methods invented 
in our age were the very sources of all the defects of modern educa- 
tion. 

"Pestalozzi, on the contrary, was free from my peculiar difficul- 
ties, and I accounted for this by the fact that he rejected all our in- 
genious contrivances, — all our well-framed systems. Some of the 
means employed by him, that, for instance, of making the children 
draw on slates, seemed to me so simple and obvious, that I could 
not understand why I had not thought of them. But his principle 
of educating mothers for that for which they were originally destined 
attracted me most. 

" Kriisi, at his visit in Basel, gave, in the girls' school there, prac- 
tical examples of Pestalozzi's mode of teaching Spelling, Reading, 
and Arithmetic, which showed me that his method was based upon 
philosophical principles; and J soon decided to join him, according to 
his wish. 

" I went to Burgdorf, and found my expectations fully realized. \ 
was astonished to see what a degree of enthusiasm the children gen- 
erally evinced, and how simple, yet manifold, were the means by 
which their energy was elicited. Pestalozzi took no notice of the 
existing systems and methods. The ideas which he presented to the 
minds of the pupils were extremely simple, and his means of in- 
struction distinctly classified — each part being adapted to a precise 
period in the progress of development. Whatever was complicated 
and confused he rejected. By a few words he conveyed much, and 
with little apparent exertion produced a powerful effect. He kept 
always close to the point under consideration. Some of his branches 
of instruction seemed like a new creation, and my admiration was 
raised to the highest degeee. 

" Some of his experiments, however, seemed to me unnatural ; for 



90 PESTALOZZI. 

instance, the repetition of difficult and complicated sentences, which 
could not at first fail to confuse the pupils ; but, on the other hand, 
I saw with what a power he afterward led the children to a clear 
perception of the ideas which they contained. When I mentioned 
my doubts to him, he answered, ' Nature herself presents various 
perceptions to our senses in confusion and obscurity, and brings them 
to clearness afterward.' To this I made no reply, because I saw that 
he attached no value to the details of his experiments; but tried 
many of them, only to throw them aside again as soon as they 
should have answered their temporary purpose. With many of 
them, he had no other object than to increase the mental power of 
the children, and to obtain for himself further information concerning the 
fundamental principles on which all his 'proceedings rested. I resolved 
not to notice the apparent inadequacy of some of his means, espe- 
cially, as I had come to the conviction that the further pursuit of 
the method necessarily involved the improvement of its details. . . . 

"Every day I saw more clearly that the different means of in- 
struction were so connected that each was instrumental in promoting 
the success of all the others, and in developing and strengthening the 
faculties generally. In short, the impressions produced upon my 
mind by Pestalozzi's experiment have reestablished in my heart that 
faith in the possibility of popular improvement which I held so dear 
at the outset of my career, but which I had almost lost under the 
pressure of systems sanctioned by the fashions of the day." 

The reader is requested to notice, in particular, the gentle but im- 
partial manner in which Tobler criticises the work which he saw at 
Burgdorf. Although he does not reply to Pestalozzi when he at- 
tempts to justify a bad practice by reference to a correct principle, 
yet what follows clearly shows that he fully understood the falsity 
of the argument. He probably saw that Pestalozzi, like other re- 
formers, though comprehending in the abstract the principles he at- 
tempted to establish, was, through enthusiasm for a particular point, 
often led to use those imperfect means and apparently useless experi- 
ments, which make some of his first work seem so inconsistent. 

During Tobler's stay in the Institution improvements were intro- 
duced in Arithmetic, Drawing, and Language, and also in his own 
branch of Geography, in which the greatest errors had been committed. 

Tobler, while at Burgdorf, established the principle of teaching 
Geography by reference to the actual surface of the earth, with a suc- 
cess which entitles him to the name of Fattier of the new method in Ge- 
ography. Upon this foundation the celebrated Bitter completed a 
structure of Physical Geography, which the world has justly admired. 



GUSTAV TOBLER. 91 

Tobler followed Pestalozzi to Yverdon, where he, however, did not 
remain long. His reasons for leaving are thus somewhat obscurely 
stated by Raumer: "Tobler's personal relations with Pestalozzi were 
neither fortunate nor enduring. The latter had not the faculty of 
determining the proper place for each of his assistants, and of lay- 
ing out for each an appointed work. He required from Tobler sim- 
ple, rapid, and immediate results from his investigations; but the 
real value of his views could not be brought out without their com- 
plete display in actual operation." To this must be added the fact 
that Tobler, who was married, may have been compelled to look else- 
where for the support of his family. In 1810 we find him at Miihl- 
hausen, a manufacturing town in the neighborhood of Basel, where 
he founded an Industrial School, which at one time contained about 
five hundred pupils. It came, however, to a sudden termination 
through the distrustful spirit of some of its patrons. 

He next engaged as teacher in a private school at Glarus, from 
which he was dismissed, in 1817, on account of the famine. After a 
temporary residence at Arbon, he established himself at St. Gallen, 
where for many years he was at the head of a flourishing seminary 
for boys. The educational reform, which was commenced in the 
Protestant cantons in 1830, gave such a prominence to public schools 
as to render private establishments superfluous. The Government of 
the canton, however, appreciating the zeal and experience of Tobler, 
intrusted him with the training of young teachers. For this task he 
was eminently qualified, and no one could behold the venerable old 
man, with his mild, expressive countenance and glistening eyes, with- 
out partaking of his enthusiasm. His principles for the moral and 
intellectual training of the young were strictly in accordance with 
those of Pestalozzi, as we learn from the introduction to one of his 
courses of Geography: "We must lead the child to truth; but that 
only is truth to the child which he finds to be so by his own labor and 
investigation ; therefore, we must lead him to search and find every 
thing for himself, excepting the revelations of history and the Bible, 
which are beyond the reach of his reason. The child arrives at in- 
dependent results chiefly by his observation and intuition. To see, in 
a physical sense, means to obtain the image of an object, as a form 
on the retina of the eye ; in an intellectual sense, to obtain the per- 
ception of that object in the mind by a process of intuition. If 
teachers wish to develop the minds of the children, they must make 
use of their senses as a medium through which to appeal to their 
understanding ; hence the necessity of resorting to a system of ques- 
tioning The questions must not be so arranged that they aid only 



92 PESTALOZZI. 

in the formation of new ideas, but also rouse, exercise, and strengthen 
the intellectual powers." 

Although Tobler did not, as far as we know, publish any work on 
science, he wrote many articles upon general topics of education for 
the journals. In his younger years he also published some novels, 
which are distinguished for their originality and the success with 
which they mingle instruction with amusement. 

His last years, which were passed in the family of his son, at Nyons, 
near Geneva, were full of that quiet enjoyment which results from a 
life spent in endeavors to promote the welfare of mankind. 

He died in 1843. 



CHAPTER IV. 

JOHANNES BUSS. 

JOHANNES BUSS was a native of Tiibingen, Wiirtemberg His 
father held there a subordinate position in a theological school, and 
was, therefore, able to secure for his son good instruction in his early 
years. Before the boy was twelve years old he had acquired considera- 
ble knowledge of Greek, Hebrew, Logic, and Rhetoric. He also ap- 
plied himself to the study of Drawing and Music, but through want of 
means he was obliged to give these up, and at the age of sixteen was 
apprenticed to a book-binder. 

On account of failing health, he left his trade and went to Basel, 
Switzerland, hoping to earn his bread there by his knowledge of mu- 
sic. He was too shy to obtain what he wanted, and was obliged to 
resort again to his trade. He, however, still dreamed of the time 
when a better opportunity might enable him to pursue a literary 
career. 

About this time, he became acquainted with Tobler, who informed 
him that Pestalozzi was in need of a master of music and drawing. 
Buss says: "I was fully aware of my deficiencies, and the ho]:>e that 
I should find an opportunity for improvement induced me to go to 
Burgdorf in spite of the warnings which I received against forming 
any connection with Pestalozzi, who, they said, was crazy, and knew 
not himself what he was about. In proof of the assertion they re- 
lated several stories ; as, for instance, that he once went to Basel 
with his shoes tied with straw, because he had given his silver buck- 
les to a beggar. I did not doubt about the buckles, but that he was 
mad I questioned. Determined to see for myself, I went to Burg- 
dorf to fill the vacant position. 

"At our first interview, he came down from an upper room with 
his stockings about his heels, and his coat covered with dust. His 
whole appearance was so miserable that I was inclined to pity him; 
yet there was something in his expression so grand that I looked 
upon him with veneration. His benevolence, the cordial reception 

(93) 



94 PESTALOZZI. 

he gave me, his unpretending simplicity, and the dilapidated condi- 
tion in which he stood before me — the whole man impressed me 
powerfully. I was his in one instant. No man had ever so sought 
my heart, none so won my confidence. 

"The following morning I entered his school, and at first, I confess, 
I saw in it nothing but apparent disorder and an uncomfortable 
bustle. ..... I thought the children were de- 
tained too long at one point; but I was reconciled to this when I saw 
the perfection which they attained in their first exercises, and the ad- 
vantages which it insured to them in their farther progress. I now 
perceived, for the first time, the disadvantages under which I myself 
had labored, in consequence of the incoherent and desultory manner in 
which I had been taught in my boyhood; and I began to think that 
if I had been kept to the first elements with similar perseverance, I 
should have been able afterward to help myself, and thus to escape 
all the sufferings and melancholy which I had endured. 

"This experience perfectly agrees with Pestalozzi's idea, that, by 
his method, men are to be enabled to help themselves, since ' there is 
no one,' as he says, ' in God's wide world, who is willing or able to 
help them.' I shuddered when I read this passage for the first time 
in 'Leonard and Gertrude.' But, alas! the experience of my life has 
taught me the truth of it. I saw clearly that my inability to pur- 
sue the plan of my younger years in an independent manner arose 
chiefly from the superficiality with which I had been taught. I had 
learned an art — that of drawing — -but I was ignorant of the basis 
on which it rested ; and, when I was called upon to apply it in a 
manner consistent with its nature, I found myself utterly at a loss to 
know what its nature was. ........ 

"I tried to reduce the science to its elements, and in my endeavors 
to reach them, I drew an endless variety of figures, which, it is true, 
might be called simple, but which were utterly unfit to illustrate the 
elementary laws of which Pestalozzi was in search. At last I began 
to suspect that I ought to know less than I did know, or that, at 
least, 1 must temporarily discard a portion of my knowledge, in order 
to descend to those single elements by which I saw him produce such 
powerful and, to me, unattainable effects. In this I succeeded at last. 

"But I fell into another extreme. Before, I had seen nothing 
but objects; now, I saw nothing but lines; and T imagined that chil- 
dren must be exercised on these lines exclusively, in every branch of 
drawing, before real objects were to be placed before them for imita- 
tion, or even for comparison. 

" But Pestalozzi viewed his drawing lessons in connection with the 



JOHANNES BUSS. 95 

whole of his method, and with nature, which will not allow any 
branch of art to remain isolated. His intention was, to lay before 
the mind two distinct series of figures, of which one should be con- 
tained in his book for little children, and the other should furnish 
practical illustrations. The first was intended to supply the percej> 
tion of the children with a knowledge of things in connection with 
their names ; the second was calculated to combine the practical appli- 
cation of art with the theoretical knowledge of its laws, by linking 
the perception of abstract forms to the outline of objects, which cor- 
responded with these.* ......... 

"I was afraid lest, by giving to the child real objects, his percej)- 
tion of the outline would be disturbed; but Pestalozzi did not wish to 
cultivate any power contrary to nature, saying : ' Nature gives no 
lines, but only objects. The lines are presented to the child, that he 
may view the objects correctly; but to take the objects from him, in 
order to make him see lines only, would be exceedingly wrong.'" 

Buss labored zealously in his new position, although he could not at 
first see the relation between the principles and means suggested to 
him by his enthusiastic teacher. Even after he thoroughly under- 
stood the application of the method to his own subjects, he seemed 
unable to comprehend its relation to other branches. This, probably, 
explains the fact that we do not find him, after leaving Pestalozzi's 
Institution, engaged in any prominent educational work. 



* This plan lias been adopted and carried out in "Kriisi"s System of Draw- 
ing " — the first series corresponding to the exercises of the " Inventive Course ; " 
the second, to those of the "Applied Course." 



CHAPTEE V. 

ASSISTANTS OF PESTALOZZI. 

TOHANNES RAMSAUER, who was a native of Herisau, canton 
f J of Appenzell, was born in 1790. He was the youngest of seven 
children, all of whom assisted their widowed mother in the business 
which supported the family. When eight years of age he was sent 
to school, and in two years scarcely learned to read and write. 
At home he received from his good mother lessons in industry, order, 
and obedience. 

Although not so entirely destitute as many at that time, his mother, 
at his urgent request, allowed him to emigrate with the poorer chil- 
dren. The boy, now only ten years of age, first wandered to Schleu- 
nicn, but finally went to Burgdorf, where he was received into Kriisi's 
school. In the same year this school was united with that of Pesta- 
lozzi : thus Ramsauer became a pupil of the great reformer. 

"In the school," says Ramsauer, "I learned no more than the 
rest ; but Pestalozzi's holy zeal, self-forgetting love, and earnest, im- 
pressive manner knit my childish, grateful heart to his forever." 
Ramsauer remained several years at Burgdorf, as pupil, table-waiter, 
and finally as under-teacher. He was a favorite with Pestalozzi, and 
was often employed by him as private secretary, working in this ca- 
pacity from early dawn till late at night. 

In 181(5, he left the Institution to teach at Wiirzburg, and also to 
attend the lectures at the University there. He acquired such a rep- 
utation that, in the autumn of the same year, he was invited to be- 
come teacher of the Princes Alexander and Peter, and also to take 
charge of an elementary school for children of the educated classes 
in Stuttgart. He accepted both these situations, and in 1820 at- 
tended the young princes to the court of their grandfather at Olden- 
burg, in order to continue their education. 

In 1<S2(>, lie was appointed teacher of the Duchesses Amelia and 
Frederika, of Oldenburg, and at the same time he conducted a 
(96) 



JUS ASSISTANTS. 97 

school for girls with great success. While there he published a work 
on "Drawing," and another entitled "Instruction in Form, Size, and 
Substance;" also "Brief Sketches of my Pedagogical Life," in which 
he narrates many events of the school life at Burgdorf and Yverdon, 
and makes many interesting remarks on education in general. From 
the latter we select as follows : 

"While a pupil, Pestalozzi often took me for a walk along the 
banks of the river Em me; and for recreation and amusement he 
looked for different kinds of stones. I also took part in this occu- 
pation, although millions lay there, and I did not know for which 
to search. He only knew a few kinds, but, nevertheless, he dragged 
along home every day with pockets and handkerchiefs full ; though, 
after once deposited, they were never looked at again. It was not an 
easy thing to find a whole pocket handkerchief at Burgdorf; all of 
them had been torn carrying stones. Pestalozzi retained this fancy 
through life." 

"At Burgdorf an active and entirely new mode of life opened to 
me. So much love and simplicity reigned in the Institution ! life 
was so simple ! so patriarchal ! Not much was learned, it is true, 
but Pestalozzi was the father and the teachers were the friends of 
the pupils. Pestalozzi's morning and evening prayers had such a 
fervor that they carried away every one who took part in them. 
He read and explained the hymns impressively, exhorted each of 
the pupils to private prayer, and heard them repeat every evening 
those they had learned at home; while at the same time he taught 
them that mere reciting prayers by rote was worthless, and that 
every one should pray from his own heart. ..... 

"Such exhortations became more and more rare at Yverdon. So 
long as the Institution was small, Pestalozzi could, by his thoroughly 
amiable personal character, adjust at once any slight discordance. 
He stood in close relation with each individual member of the circle, 
and could thus observe every peculiarity of disposition, and influence 
it according to necessity. 

"This ceased when the family life was transformed into that of an 
organized school. Now the individual was lost in the crowd, and, con- 
sequently, there arose a desire on the part of each to make himself 
felt and noticed. Every day egotism made its appearance in more 
prominent forms. Envy and jealousy rankled in the hearts of many. 
Pestalozzi, however, remained the same noblediearted man, living 
only for the welfare of others, and infusing his own spirit into the 
household." 

I*. 7. 



98 PESTALOZZI. 

" I have already said that the finer social graces must cither be in- 
born or developed by culture. Even of the simple politeness of a 
boy's manners this is true. Those to whom this gift is natural are 
usually of rather weak or superficial intellects ; but they get well 
through the world, that is, easily attain eminence in society. This 
opinion has led me to another and a more important one, namely, that 
in practical life it is of little moment whether one has 'a good head.' 
It is of much greater importance, what is one's character for truthful- 
ness and perseverance; and much more that he keeps his faith, 
through which, if it be the right kind, comes the blessing. 

"Every one of even moderate experience will agree with me that 
those men who have filled important places in the world are in- 
debted to their truthfulness, perseverance, and uprightness, much 
more than to their ' good head ' or their genius. Even in the ele- 
mentary schools this truthfulness and perseverance can be cultivated, 
proved, and established; but it is home education which must do 
most of it. 

"It has often troubled me to hear of a 'smart boy' in a family or 
school, and to see those undervalued who lack such a qualification. 
Such praise discourages those reckoned inferior (who subsequently 
may excel them), and only makes those possessed of this apparent 
talent conceited and heartless. . ...... 

"There are teachers who lay great stress upon learning quickly, 
forgetting that the most superficial scholars are often the quickest. 
Such will find that these forget just as quickly ; Avhile things acquired 
with more pains remain longer in the memory, and are better under- 
stood. The principal thing is thoroughness : it is this only which 
truly educates — which tells upon character. Merely to know more 
or less is of little significance. Whoever imagines that he knows 
A-ery much, does, in fact, know pitifully little. This thoroughness 
should be a characteristic even of the lowest elementary school':, it 
is a result of perseverance. A condition preparatory to this thor- 
oughness is, that the pupil be constrained — without any apparent 
force, however- — into thinking and laboring independently. I have 
often said to an indolent or compliant pupil, who imitated others too 
easily, 'Your own eating must make you fat; your own thinking 
must make you wise, and your own practice must make you dex- 
terous.' 

"A condition of thoroughness is repetition — constant repetition. 
This is to many teachers too wearisome or slow; but a teacher whose 
hearl is in his work will lie drilling often and earnestly, and always 
in new ways; so that both the pupil and himself will always be get- 



HTS ASSISTANTS. 99 

ting at a new and interesting side of the subject. A teacher who 
labors in two or three departments of study with vivacity and pleas- 
ure, and gives really thorough instruction — such as educates — will 
naturally have neither time nor wish to spend several hours daily in 
mere amusements. His work and progress in Avhat is really useful 
for time and eternity will constitute his greatest happiness." 

He sums up the different experiences of his life thus: "I learned 
at home to work, pray, and obey ; in Schleumen, to run, climb, and 
jump; with Pestalozzi, to work, think, and observe; during my vari- 
ous journeys, to be independent, and help myself; in Wiirzburg and 
Stuttgart, to be more modest, and to know more of family life ; in 
Oldenburg, to love the word of God, to endure good and evil with 
equanimity, and that it is possible to live very happily here below 
and, at the same time, prepare for the better, future life." 



Joseph Schmid, whom we have already mentioned in the life of 
Pestalozzi, went to Burgdorf from the mountains of Tyrol. He was 
entirely without culture and refinement, but possessed a rare talent 
for Mathematics, great industry and energy of character, and an un- 
bounded ambition. He was a devout Catholic, and is said to have 
pi*ayed to the Virgin Mary " to grant him strength to become the 
first scholar in the school." He evidently did not rely upon faith 
alone to accomplish his purpose ; for Pestalozzi says of him : " On 
account of his quiet, efficient activity and eager efforts after every 
attainment in learning, he soon surpassed all his teachers, and even 
became the instructor of those who, but a short time before, had con- 
sidered him the most uncultivated child that had ever been in the 
Institution." 

Schmid's practical business capacity and habits of order and thor- 
oughness — qualities which Pestalozzi did not possess — enabled him in 
time to obtain great influence in the management of the school. His 
demeanor, however, toward the other teachers became so disagreeable 
and arbitrary, that, in 1810, an open feud broke out, and he was 
dismissed. 

Soon after, he took charge of a school at Bregenz, where he pub- 
lished a work entitled, " My Experience and Ideas of Education, In- 
stitutions, and Schools," in which he attempted to vindicate himself, 
and throw all the blame of the quarrel upon the other teachers. 

The absence of his practical guidance and financial skill was deeply 

felt bv all. Even Niederer, who had led the opposition against him, 

L.or 0. 



100 PESTALOZZI. 

wrote in a conciliatory manner, and, in 1815, gave him a pressing- 
invitation to return, which he accepted. At once he commenced a 
complete reform in the economy of the school, and interfered with 
the other teachers in such a domineering spirit, that a silent but 
great antipathy to him again arose. This at last broke out into open 
hostility, the result of which we have narrated in the first part of 
this work. 

Of his life after Pestalozzi's school was broken up but little is 
known. We last hear of him in Paris, where he gave private lessons 
in Drawing and Mathematics — no doubt with his usual ability. In 
1850 he died there, alone and uncared for, save by a servant. 



Steiner was a rough, uncouth peasant boy from the canton of 
Berne, who, from an intense desire for knowledge, went to Burgdorf. 
Not having sufficient money to pay his board, he engaged in some 
manual labor which allowed him to attend school a portion of the 
day. He was deficient in verbal memory, but, by steady industry 
and perseverance, he developed great logical and reasoning powers, 
which soon gave him prominence in the mathematical department of 
the school. After leaving Pestalozzi he taught in a gymnasium in 
Germany, and ultimately became Professor of Mathematics in the 
University of Berlin. While there he published some valuable and 
original works upon Mathematical Science, and attained considerable 
eminence in the literary world. 



Part hi 



EXTRACTS 



FROM THE 



Writings of Pestalozzl 



CHAPTER I. 
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SUBJECTS. 

THE writings of Pestalozzi were published in a collected form in 
1819, by Cotta, in Stuttgart. They appeared under the super- 
vision of Sehmid, who, however, neglected to give them in their chron- 
ological order, and omitted some important documents. 

With few exceptions, these works have not been translated into 
English ; partly on account of their experimental and theoretical char- 
acter, and partly because the subjects treated, until within a compara- 
tively recent period, have attracted little attention from the English- 
speaking people. Besides, from their want of logical arrangement, 
and the peculiar style in which they are written, they would hardly 
have received justice at the hands of critics, or have been understood 
in the spirit in which they were originally conceived. 

We make these extracts now, because we believe the time has come 
when there is a wide-spread demand for all possible light on educa- 
tional subjects ; because the extracts seem indispensable to a complete 
idea of the character of the man ; and because they contain those 
germs of thought from which the educational reform had its origin. 

We need hardly say that a writer constituted like Pestalozzi, with 
an ardent imagination, and without that early mental culture which 
secures due subordination in all departments of thought, would ex- 
hibit a style that transcends the limits of logic and appears visionary 
and strange. To persons, however, who are actuated by intense and 
ever-active feelings of compassion for the poor and unfortunate, there 
is often given a power of divination, which looks forward to the real- 
ization of cherished hopes and plans, and sees the world kindled into 
flame from the sparks of wisdom and morality, which they have fanned 
into existence. Such men are usually impelled by a deep religious 
sentiment which pervades their every feeling and action. 

We would naturally expect that a productive mind, moved by phil- 
anthropic purposes, would discuss all the relations existing between 
the individual, the state, the church, and the school. In his earliest 

(103) 



104 PEKTALOZZL 

■ 

writings, we find Pestalozzi an ardent patriot, sharply criticising the 
existing abuses and inequalities of society, which imposed its burdens 
upon the many poor and conferred its privileges upon the wealthy 
few. 

As earlv as 17<S2 we find, in his contributions to a Swiss journal, 
the following topics discussed: "The Temptations which Surround 
Females of the Lower Classes;" "Corruption of Servants in Great 
Houses;" "The Want of Even-handed Justice between the Rich and 
the Poor;" "Men With and Without Influence;" "The Hypocrisy 
of the Privileged Classes and their Indifference to the Real Suffering 
of the People;" "Popular Education;" "The Prevalence of Honest 
Principles in the Legislation of Former Times, Compared with the 
Laxity and Compromising Spirit of Modern Legislation ; " " Destruc- 
tive Agency of Quackery and Superstition ; " " The Tendency of Pe- 
nal Laws to Increase rather than Diminish the Sources of Crime ; " 
"The Organization of Prisons;" "The Moral Improvement of Crim- 
inals and the Defects of Charity." 

In all these articles Pestalozzi espouses the cause of the poor and 
oppressed. The improvements which have taken place in many of 
the departments then under discussion, show that a reform was ur- 
gently needed. Our first extract is from an address delivered in 
1788, on a national anniversary, and will give an idea of his power 
and enthusiasm at that early period : 

" ' Thou art free ! ' Thus spoke to Helvetia her guardian angel on 
the triumphant day of her liberty. ' But suffer thy people to enjoy 
this freedom in all the purity in which I now give it to thee, or it 
will be taken from thee,' added he, with a frown on his brow and a 
flash in his eye. 

"Helvetia's sons understood the warning of the oracle, and for cen- 
turies lived like brethren in their mountains and valleys. 

"Guardian angel of Helvetia, show me once more the sires of our 
land ! Cause to appear before my eyes the image of the founders of 
our union and liberty ! . . . I see them — men of high stature, 
with majestic beards, flowing down to their girdles, and with mighty 
swords hanging at their sides; but their countenances are friendly and 
cheerful. Their arms, though scaled with iron, are ready for the em- 
brace of pious affection ; their hands, terrible in battle, are faithful in 
promise ; they live for those whom they love, and die for those to 
whom they have sworn But now, oh, hide thy counte- 
nance and mourn, thou priest of liberty ! Thy altars are without 
a gift : the people of Helvetia are burning incense to strange gods. 
They have become like the starving people in the lands of the kings 



SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SUBJECTS. 105 

around them. The sons of those men, who knew nothing but their 
fatherland, now know nothing but themselves — know nothing but 
their families, while they forget the honor and interest of that coun- 
try to which they owe their existence and their glory. 

"Ye men of Helvetia! flee discord; for by discord you sink to the 
level of the countries which divide their bread with their kings. In- 
dustry and zeal for the welfare of your country established your 
homes. Depart not from the fashion of your forefathers and from 
the duties of your stations ! Guardian angel of the land ! raise thy 
voice, and send it from mountain to mountain and from valley to 
valley ! With a sound of thunder declare the great truth, that the 
liberty of all is in the protection of the right of all. Angel of lib- 
erty ! defend us ! Oh, defend forever this small spot of earth in the 
hands of this people ! Preserve the rulers of Helvetia, that they 
may never cease to be the fathers of the people, and that the uni- 
versal tie of the fatherland may bind us more and more firmly to- 
gether ! Oh, raise us up again, and kindle the last spark of patriot- 
ism that is left in our veins into a mighty flame ! When danger 
lurks behind our mountain passes, and wild torrents threaten to inun- 
date our peaceful fields, then fan our ancient fire into a sacred flame, 
that we, Helvetia's faithful sons, may battle and die for the father- 
land!" 

Pestalozzi published, in 1795, under the title " Figures to my Spell- 
ing Book," a collection of fables, all bearing more or less upon the 
political and social conditions of his age. Although a vein of satire 
seems to pervade them, we find occasionally a hidden grief under the 
mask of hilarity, as will be seen in the introductory fable. 

THE PAINTER OF MEN. 

"He stood at the easel, and the people thronged around him and 
said: 'So thou hast turned painter! Truly thou hadst done better 
to mend our shoes ! ' 

"And he answered: ' I would have mended shoes for you ; I would 
have carried stones for you ; I would have drawn water for you ; but 
you would not have any of my services; and, therefore, in the com- 
pulsory idleness of my despised existence, what else could I do but 
learn painting.'" 

THE MUSHROOM AND THE GRASS. 
"The Mushroom said to the grass: ' I spring up in a moment, 



106 PESTALOZZI. 

whilst thou must grow for a whole summer, in order to attain to what 
I am.' 

" ' Very true,' replied the grass, ' but, before I am worth any thing, 
thou — worthless thing — must spring up and perish a hundred 
times.'" 

THE APE AXD THE SERPENT. 

"A young ape meditated a long time, and could not find out what 
humility is. At last, seeing a serpent crawling on his belly, he said 
to his mother: 'To sneak thus through the world without hands or 
feet is, I suppose, what they call humility.'" 

CHRISTOPHER AND HIS WATCH. 

"'If I set thee going, thou wilt wear out; and if I wind thee up, 
thy chain may break,' said Christopher, to whom a watch had been 
bequeathed. After mature reflection, he said : ' Thou hadst better 
stand still, and then these dangers will be averted.' " 

WHERE SHALL IT END. 

"His great-grandfather trusted in his armor and sword; his grand- 
father, in his fist ; his father, in his tongue ; he trusts in his quill ; in 
what will his son trust?" 

EQUALITY. 

"A dwarf said to a giant, 'We have equal rights.' 'Very true, 
my good fellow,' replied the giant, ' and yet thou canst not walk in 
my shoes.' " 

THE PRIVILEGES OF THE FISHES. 

" The fishes of a pond complained that they, more than their neigh- 
bors in other ponds, were persecuted by the pikes ; whereupon an old 
pike, who was the judge of the pond, pronounced this sentence: 'The 
defendants, to make amends, shall in future permit every year two 
common fishes to become pikes.'" 

THE TWO MAGISTRATES. 

" ' I am again weary to death, ami yet they are not satisfied/ said a 
groveling magistrate, at the close of his session. 



SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SUBJECTS. 107 

" Another, who understood the art of governing exceedingly well, 
replied : 'I, on the contrary, am never fatigued, and yet they are 
always contented with me.' ' I would buy thy secret with gold, if it 
were for sale,' said the first. The other replied : ' It would be to 
thee of no use. When Kitty cooks her turnips, and Johnny manures 
his land, and Harry waters his donkey, I pass on, whistling, and 
think to myself, ' What is that to me ? ' 

"' Well, and I think the village would go to ruin if I had not 
knowledge of every thing,' said the weary one." 

Our next extracts are from a political work, entitled " Inquiries 
into the Course of Nature in the Development of the Human Spe- 
cies." This was, doubtless, written under the influence of Rousseau's 
works, in which lie was greatly interested at that time. That he 
was in a morbid and despairing frame of mind, induced, probably, 
by witnessing the injustice and inhumanity of the existing govern- 
ments, will be seen by one of the conclusions at which he arrives : 
"The social compact is nothing more than a truce, entered into by 
the animal propensities of all parties, which would otherwise be at 
constant war with each other." The questions which he proposes to 
consider are the following: "What am I? What is the human 
species? What have I done? What is the human species doing? 
What has the course of life, such as it has been, made of the hu- 
man species? On what ground does the volition of the human spe- 
cies and its opinions rest, and on what must they rest under the cir- 
euuastances in which it is placed?" 

As a preliminary to their solution he gives the following outline of 
the march of civilization : 

" By the helplessness of his animal condition, man is brought to 
knowledge. 

"Knowledge leads to acquisition; acquisition to possession; posses- 
sion to the formation of society; society to power and honor; power 
and honor to the relation of ruler and subject ; the relation of ruler 
and subject to the distinction of nobles and commons, and to the 
crown. 

"All these relations call for a code of laws; law calls for civil lib- 
erty. 

"The want of law entails tyranny; that is, a state of things in 
which men constitute a society without regulations for the improve- 
ment and maintenance of mutual obligations." 

"Following the course of nature in another direction, I find in my- 



108 PESTALOZZI. 

self a certain benevolence, by winch acquisition, honor, property, and 
power ennoble my mind ; while without it all these privileges of my 
social condition only tend to degrade me more deeply. Tracing this 
benevolence to its source, I find it to be essentially of sensual, animal 
origin ; but I find, likewise, within myself a power, which will enno- 
ble its very root ; and benevolence so ennobled I call love. 

"But there is danger still of love being lost in my desire for self- 
gratification. I feel desolate, and I seek to rise beyond the power of 
imagination — beyond the limits of all the research and knowledge that 
are possible here below — to the fountain-head of my existence, in order 
to derive from thence help against the desolation of my being — against 
all the ills and weaknesses of my nature." ..... 

"Let the social constitution resemble ever so well a whitewashed 
wall, and let the dispositions of power wear ever so admirably the 
mark of humanity, man never will truly and freely submit to an ar- 
rangement which gives any one the right to punish the aberrations 
of his animal tendencies. The relation of man to man in the social 
state is merely animal. As a mass — as a people — man does not 
submit himself to the powers of the state. There is nothing he con- 
templates less than the service of God and the love due to his neigh- 
bor. He enters society with a view to gratify himself and to enjoy 
all those things which, to a sensual and animal being, are the indis- 
pensable conditions of satisfaction and happiness. 

"The social law is, therefore, in nowise a moral law, but a mere 
modification of the animal law. 

"Meanwhile, social power is deeply interested in my moral con- 
dition, that my animal tendencies may never conflict with its own 
gratifications. 

" This is why, all over the earth, it endeavors to represent the so- 
cial relation as a moral tie, at least on one side. But the disposition 
of power to represent itself as morally related to the people, does not 
alter the position in which it really stands to them. If the persons 
in power, stimulated by their immoral tendencies, encourage the de- 
lusion for their own ends, with a view to cover their civil lawlessness 
and their social injustice, they do only what the wolf and fox would 
do, if they could, to inspire the sheep and the hen with unbounded 
confidence. Nevertheless, the hen does well to sleep on trees by 
night, and the sheep to keep by the shepherd, in spite of what the 
wolf may say," 

A\ hen he penned the following passage, he seems to have had be- 



SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SUBJECTS. 109 

fore his eyes all the horrors of the French Revolution ; the sufferings 

of a degraded people ; the dissipation and selfishness of kings and no- 
bles; the sudden rise of the masses, and their acts of maddened fury 
and despair : 

"Incalculable is the misery of our continent. An eternal and un- 
changeable law turns the balance of moral existence forever on the 
side of the animal forces and tendencies ; and he who combines with 
them the advantages of power, will ever say to the weaker part of 
his species, ' Ye are made for my sake ; ' and he plays on their 
crowded ranks as on the wires of a dulcimer. As many wires as 
break, he throws away, and draws new ones across his damaged in- 
strument ; for what is it to him whether the wires break or not, they 
are only wires. 

"Alas! they are men; but they grow up in the inexpressible deg- 
radation of a lawless servitude. Like the claws on the paws of a 
bear, they know not what is the design of the growling animal that 
rests on them ; but they are always ready to tear out the entrails of 
any one against whom he may growl. ...... 

When once power has become un- 
faithful, and has learned to paliate the sin of treason by cold unmean- 
ing language, then the law of humanity has departed from the earth. 

Enthralled by a power which acknowledges no law against itself, man 
sinks back into all the helplessness and obtuseness of his natural cor- 
ruption ; and the general spread of Sansculottism leads to the dissolu- 
tion of the social ties. 

"Before this comes to pass, kings, like the oak, grow hardened on 
their thrones ; deep horror hovers round their crowns ; they stand 
isolated, like barren rocks, surrounded by bottomless abysses ; celiba- 
tarian monks and misanthropic knight -bachelors become the last pil- 
lars of the state, till they, too, begin to give way, and then, in the 
desolation of anarchy, which wanton lawlessness has brought on, 
nations sink into dissolution." 

This wa>, undoubtedly, a gloomy view of the existing state of 
things ; but it was the gloom in his own soul which made him see, 
at that time, every thing in a dim and distorted lights. Let v» »©* 
forget that when he wrote the above — in 1797 — he mourned over 
the destruction of his most cherished plans ; mourned over the 
breaking up of his school for the poor, for which he had sacri- 
ficed his money, his time, and his health; mourned over seventeen 
years spent in unprofitable labor, amidst contempt, poverty, and pri- 
vation. Shall we wonder that he closes with a kind of funereal 



110 PESTALOZZI. 

inscription to himself, which is full of deeji pathos, and almost sub- 
lime in its unselfishness? 

"Thousands pass away in the corruption of sensual gratification, 
and they seek no more. 

"Tens of thousands are overwhelmed by the burdens of craft and 
trade, by the weight of the hammer, the yard-stick, or the crown, 
and they seek no more. 

"But I know a man who did seek more. The joy of simplicity 
dwelt in his heart, and he had faith in mankind, such as few men 
have; his soul was made for friendship; love was his element, and 
fidelity his strongest tie. But he was not made for the world, and 
wherever he was placed he was found wanting. The world asked not 
whether it was his fault or the fault of others; but it bruised him 
with an iron hammer, as the bricklayers break an old brick to fill up 
crevices. 

"Though bruised., he still trusted in mankind; and he proposed 
to himself a great purpose, to attain which, he suffered agonies, and 
learned lessons such as few mortals have learned. 

" He did not flatter himself that he could be generally useful, but 
for his purpose he was better fitted than most men are for theirs. 
He expected justice at the hands of mankind, but he found none. 
Self-appointed judges confirmed the sentence, that ' he was generally 
and absolutely useless.' This was the grain of sand which decided 
the doubtful balance of his wretched destinies. 

" He is no more ; thou wouldest know him no more ; all that re- 
mains of him are the decayed remnants of his destroyed existence. 

" He fell as a fruit that falls before it is ripe, whose blossom has 
been nipped by the northern gale, or whose core has been eaten by 
the gnawing worm. 

"Stranger, who passeth by, refuse not a tear of sympathy. Even 
in falling the fruit turned toward the tree, on the branches of which 
it had lingered through the summer, and whispered, ' Verily, even 
in my death will I nourish thy roots.' 

"Stranger, spare the perishing fruit, and allow the dust of its de- 
cay to nourish the roots of the tree on which it lived, sickened, and 
died." 

These are the sentiments of absolute despair. With the expiration 
of his hopes the writer seems to draw his last breath. Advanced be- 
yond the meridian of his life, and expecting to die, his only sorrow 
is that his earthly mission remains unfulfilled. 

Mark the contrast! Eighteen years afterward, when he had risen 



SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SUBJECTS. Ill 

to immortal fame, his feelings and sentiments were of quite a differ- 
ent character. In his "Appeal to My Fatherland," the last of his 
political writings, we find this remarkable passage upon the character 
and mission of Napoleon, whose sun of glory had just sunk beneath 
the horizon : 

" The nature of sovereign power, as the guardian of individual 
rights and the protector of the weak and suffering, not only gave 
Bonaparte a right, but imposed upon him a solemn obligation to in- 
terfere decidedly with every violation of the primitive and most sa- 
cred relationships of society ; but his right of interference was en- 
tirely derived from his position as sovereign, and from the duties 
which that position involved, and was wholly unconnected with his 
personal standing. He had no right, therefore, to appropriate the 
funds — the maladministration of which he was bound to oppose — to 
his own personal use, or to the purposes of his empire, at the expense 
of individual interests: he had no right to seize them for covering the 
wants of the military, finance, and police systems created by him, and 
for satisfying the claims of his avaricious agents. He ought to have 
exerted his sovereign power, which was derived from God, for arrest- 
ing the abuse which those whom the state protects in their possessions, 
might make of their property, to the injury of any of their fellow- 
citizens, <>r to the prejudice of the public weal. 

" But, considering Bonaparte's character, his career, and the spirit 
of the age in which he lived, it must be admitted that it was not 
easy for him to take so just a view of the matter. A rich man can 
hardly enter the kingdom of God ; and so, likewise, a man with a 
character and energy like that of Bonaparte, who rose up in the 
midst of an enervated generation, and was carried along in his career 
by all the charms and impulses of universal corruption in its full ma- 
turity, could hardly regard Ins sovereignty as a sacred office, by which 
he was bound to exert his power in the service of views and objects 
entirely foreign to him. He could hardly be expected to make, be- 
tween church property and other charitable corporate institutions 
on one hand, and the public revenue on the other, that distinction 
which can only arise out of a higher view of the social relations. 

"The peculiar difficulty of his position is not sufficiently taken into 
account ; and when I see certain people whose weak powers are per- 
severingly engaged in hunting up means for the accomplishment of 
their own bad purposes, so very forcibly struck by the greater wick- 
edness of the energetic chase instituted by the late lion, I am some- 
times tempted to whisper to them : ' He that is without sin among 
you, let him first cast a stone at him.' 



112 PESTALOZZI. 

"On the other hand, it is very true that he seemed not made to 
realize the ideal of a king in the true, divine sense of the word. He 
was not made to form the center for every thing great, good, and 
holy that might be found in the state, and among mankind at large. 
If he had exercised against himself that heroic strength which he ex- 
hibited in his struggle against the world ; if he had conquered him- 
self for the sake of his brethren, for the sake of suffering humanity, 
he might have been the deliverer of our deeply-degraded age, the fos- 
tering angel of Europe, the crown of its sages, the sovereign of its 
hearts. 

" But he was nothing of all this. He conquered the world, but 
was overpowered by his own weakness and a selfishness ill-suited 
to the elevation to which he was raised. . . . The events of his 
early career marred in him those germs of pure and holy feelings 
which exist in the bosom of every great man. All that was truly 
generous in him was destroyed; yet the consciousness of the powers 
which he possessed gave him a feeling of superiority, in which con- 
tempt for those who could get no ascendency over him was combined 
with impatience of all control. In the moment of decision he felt 
that he was able to sway the world ; and he became an autocrat, the 
scourge of the nations, destined to rouse mankind from the slumber 
of weakness and sloth, to show forth the spirit and the character of 
that war which our carnal nature ever Avages against morality and 
sanctified humanity, and to exhibit all the abomination and all the 
horrors of that conflict. 

"In that war he was successful. Had I not faith in God, I should 
say he was successful in the work of hell as no mortal and no sinner 
was before him. I am unable to give a picture of what he made of 
himself. The idea which stands forever as a landmark between hu- 
manity and inhumanity, the watchword of all tyrants hardened in 
the wicked principle of treating mankind as collective masses, the 
question which Cain dared to ask (bid Almighty, 'Am I my brother's 
keeper?' was established by Bonaparte as a maxim of government, 
with infinitely more energy and success than by any ruler before 
him; and it was long, very long, before that blasphemy caused him 
to become a fugitive and vagabond in the earth. His warfare against 
human kind prospered from the north to the south, from the Rhine 
to the Volga. Carefully evading every discussion of their just claim-, 
with tiger's strength he vindicated as a right what his predecessors 
had, like cunning foxes, gained by subterfuge. 

"His career was great, (bid, who directs the affairs of men, made 
use of him for the purpose of warning this generation, more emphat- 



SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SUBJECTS. 113 

ically than ever before, against that stumbling-block which has ob- 
structed, and ever will obstruct, the welfare of society — the prefer- 
ence given to the mass in its collective capacity over the rights of 
individual members. . . . The rapidity with which he enslaved 
the minds of men, from the lowest rabble up to the heads of church 
and state, and the long continuance of the bondage in which he kept 
them, is ever to be considered as a masterpiece of human art in the 
deepest corruption of which man is capable. 

"This was not the work of his sword. Before that the world fled; 
but the blood which he shed with it, the waste which he created, the 
widows and orphans whom he made desolate, won him no hearts. 
The submission of men's minds to his rule was not the work of his 
sword, but of his genius, which laid hold of the weaknesses of the 
age with irresistible power. He spoke to the honor of the age : 
' Contaminate thyself for me, and crown thou for me the beggar and 
the scoundrel ; ' and honor ceased to be honor ; it contaminated itself, 
and crowned for him beggars and scoundrels. He spoke to the cour- 
age of the age: 'Be regardless of justice, and bold, like myself, in 
injustice;' and courage regarded not justice, and was bold in injus- 
tice. He spoke to the lust of the age : 'Assist thou me, and for my 
sake outdo thyself;' and lust came to his assistance, and surpassed 
itself in his service. He spoke to the light of the age : ' Vanish 
thou from the sight of the nations, and shine only to me, and 
through me, and for me ; ' and light was changed into darkness for 
the nations ; and he alone saw, and no one saw but through him and 
for him. He spoke to the faith of the age : ' Be thou unfaithful for 
my sake ; ' and faith became unfaithful for his sake. He spoke to 
the industry of the age : ' In chains shalt thou work for me ; ' and 
industry worked for him in chains. He spoke to the men of his 
age : ' If you do this, I will reward you ; ' and they and their rulers 
shrank from no deed, however abominable, however base, however 
revolting, for they lusted after his reward. He said again: 'If you 
do it not, I will take vengeance on you ; ' and the men of his age 
regarded nothing, however holy — regarded not the feelings of their 
own bosoms, nor the throbbings of their own hearts, for the fear of 
his vengeance. He was the soul, he was the breath, he was the 
spirit and the life of every impulse of violence in his day. He was 
the center of every lawless feeling, of every unjust deed, from the 
throne down to the ale-house. He was the soul of all thinkers, and 
of all politicians, whose philosophy and whose politics went not be- 
yond the five senses. He was also a terror and a cause of wailing 
to all who, with similar desires in their hearts, had not the same 
P. S. 



114 PESTALOZZI. 

marrow in their bones, nor the same blood in their veins, whose 
senses were not supported by an equal strength of nerve. 

"This was his character, this his power, this the secret of his as- 
cendency, this his pro}), when he rose to the throne, when he taught 
mankind lessons such as had not been taught for centuries, — the rev- 
erence which sovereign power ought to have for the primitive claims 
of individual existence; the necessity of a power raised above the 
corruption of the mass and the degradation of its tools; the want of 
a holy king, whom both his character and the law of his kingdom 
would constitute the free father of all his children, and the guardian 
of the rights of every individual among them; the contrast be- 
tween a divine and a carnal spirit in power, in subjection, and in 
freedom. 

" It was his will that Europe should erect him a temple, under 
Avhose high arches no sunbeam should penetrate, but on whose altar 
a flame was to burn bright above all flames that ever were kindled 
by the hand of man; and in the brightness of that flame should be 
read the words : 

'This is the light which Bonaparte grants to Europe.'" 

In this same appeal, he gives excellent advice to his countrymen, 
who, after the downfall of the great arbiter of the destinies of Eu- 
rope, were discussing the best forms of government for their own 
country : " Be not deceived, O my country. Thy liberty, thy hap- 
piness, will not drop down from the clouds. Nations, generally, 
attain no greater prosperity than that which they deserve ; nor is this, 
thy sacred hour, given thee for the display of perfection. God grant 
that thou may est employ it in preparing for a better state. There 
are no abrupt transitions in nature from the deepest corruption to 
the highest pitch of perfection ; but they are all gradual. Severe ill- 
ness is not followed by health, but by convalescence, a careful atten- 
tion to which can alone lead to the return of perfect health. My 
country! the present period is for thee only a time of convalescence, 
and the blessing which it may bring thee will entirely depend on thy 
turning it to account scrupulously and with holy solicitude. 

"Friends of humanity! fathers of generations to come! let us not 
deceive ourselves. The real internal blessings of humanity are not 
the fruits of the external forms of the civil constitution, but of the 
moral and spiritual condition of the individuals. 

"My country! a charmer is presenting a garden of fruitful trees to 
thy eyes. Thou ait amazed: hungry and languishing, thou stretch- 
est out thy hand for one of its fruits, and behold, in an instant, the 



SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SUBJECTS. 115 

whole garden disappears from before thine eyes. There is a terrible 
illusion in constitutional freedom, especially when newly established. 
A small seed is deposited in the ground, which soon springs up ; but 
its stem is feeble, and, arrested every winter, its growth is slow, 
while many dangers beside have to be averted ; thus, much time 
passes away before it yields fruit in abundance. 

"O my country! old constitutions, when curtailed in root and 
branch, and transplanted to a new soil, grow no more than old 
trees when thus treated. Blessed art thou, if thou art able to nurse 
up new ones from a seed of truth and life, and to bestow upon 
them that maternal solicitude which they recpiire. Blessed art thou, 
if thou art not blinded to the most urgent and the most sacred claims 
of this present period." 

This patriotic appeal shows an important stage in the development 
of Pestalozzi's ideas of the acquisition of true liberty and independ- 
ence. He no longer accuses the rulers and lawgivers of being the 
sole authors of all the social evils ; but traces those evils to their real 
source, which is chiefly found in the ignorance and depravity of the 
individuals that compose the nation. Who will deny this truth? 
There would be no despots, if there were no cringing slaves ; no po- 
litical deceivers, if all the rest were honest ; no hypocrites, if simple 
piety always found its reward ; no cpiacks and humbugs, if the num- 
ber of dupes were not so great. 

What could Pestalozzi do after coming to the conviction that it is 
folly to expect the salvation of a state by outward forms and organi- 
zations — what, but implore the nation to give its full attention to 
the improvement of the individual, in order to raise on this founda- 
tion the firm structure of political regeneration ? We find that he, 
through all his temporary doubts and aberrations, became more and 
more convinced that the true remedy for existing political evils is 
the education of the masses. 

In the year 1780, directly after giving up his school for the poor 
at Neuhof, he prepared an article, entitled "Evening Hours of a 
Hermit," for a journal published at Basel. "It is," says Raumer, 
" made up of a series of aphorisms, which, nevertheless, are cast in 
one mold, and stand in the closest connection. Fruits of the past 
years of his life, they are at the same time seeds of the coming 
ones — programme and key to his future educational labors." 

The most prominent of these aphorisms are the following: 
"Why does man investigate truth without order or purpose? Why 



116 PESTALOZZI. 

does he not seek what his nature needs, that therewith he may obtain 
pleasure and blessings? Why does he not secure truth, which will 
afford him inward peace, develop his faculties, make his days cheerful 
and his years blessed? 

" Source of the deepest peace of our existence, pure power of our 
nature, blessing of our being, thou art no dream ! To seek thee, to 
investigate thee, is the end and destiny of man ! Thou art both a 
necessity to me and an impulse from the deepest part of my soul ! 

"Nature develops all tlie human faculties by practice, and their growth 
depends upon their exercise. Men, fathers, force not the faculties of 
your children into paths too distant before they have attained 
strength by exercise ; avoid harshness and overfatigue." 

"When the right order of things is inverted, the faculties of the 
mind are weakened and lose their steadiness. You do this when, be- 
fore making children sensitive to truth and wisdom by the real knowl- 
edge of actual objects, you engage them in the thousand-fold confu- 
sions of word-learning. 

" The artificial mode of the schools, which every-where crowds in 
this array of words — instead of the easier and slower method of na- 
ture — endows men with an artificial show of acquirement, which 
varnishes over their lack of inner natural powers, but at the same 
time satisfies the people of the present century." 

"Man loses all the balance of his power, the efficacy of his wis- 
dom, if his mind is too one-sided, or too forcibly applied to any one 
subject. Nature's mode of teaching is not a forcible one; but steady, 
consistent, and strictly economical. ...... 

" Tlie circle of knowledge, through which evert/ man in his own place 
becomes blessed, begins immediately around him, from his own being, and 
from his closest relations. It extends from this beginning, and at every 
increase must have reference to truth, that central point of all blessed powers. 

"The man who with rapid course flits over every subject, and does 
not fortify his acquirements by steady investigation, loses the power 
of observing cheerfully and steadily — loses the genuine pleasure of 
sensibility to truth. 

" Man must be trained to inward peace, to contentment with his 
condition, and with the pleasures attainable in it ; and to patience, 
reverence, and faith in the love of the Father. 

"Peace and quiet pleasure are the first objects of human educa- 
tion. Man, thy knowledge and aims must be subordinate to high 
purposes, or thy curiosity and ambition will become gnawing agonies 
and curses. 

"Man, thou livest not for thyself alone. Nature educates thee 



SOCIAL AXD POLITICAL SUBJECTS. 117 

for intercourse with those about thee. The domestic relations are 
the first and most important ties of nature. 

" Man labors in his calling and endures the burden of a citizen, 
that thereby he may enjoy in quiet the pure blessings of his domes- 
tic happiness. Home, thou art the school of morals! O man! thy 
family and the best of thy pleasures will not last thee forever. 

"In God, as the Father of thy house, the source of thy blessings, 
findest thou peace, power, and wisdom, which no pain nor the grave . 
can destroy. | 

"Faith in God is the fountain of peace; peace produces inward 
order ; inward order is the source of the unerring application of our 
powers: and this again causes the growth of those powers and of 
their training in wisdom ; wisdom is the spring of all human bless- 
ings. 

"Faith in God is the source of all wisdom and all blessings, and 
is nature's road to the pure education of man. 

"Faith in God, thou art the portion of the people in every clime; 
thou art the power of men in every exaltation, and their strength in 
every adversity; thou art not a sequel and result of educated wisdom; 
thou art a pure endowment of simplicity — the hearkening ear of 
innocence to the voice of nature, whose father is God." 

"God the Father! God, an existence within the dwellings of men! 
God within my own inmost being ! God, the giver of his own 
gifts, and of the pleasures of my life ! He is the source of this 
faith." 

" When the flames of misery burn over thy heart and destroy thee, 
will the dictum of wise men support thee? But when thy Father 
strengthens thee, makes thy days cheerful, lifts thy being above all 
sorrows, and develops within thee blessed enjoyments, then does thy 
faith in God grow strong." 

" If God is the Father, then the day of death is not the fulfillment 
of existence ! Man, thy inward sense is a sure guide to truth and 
duty. Dost thou doubt when this sense summons thee to immortal- 
ity ? " 

"O man, believe in thyself; believe in the inward intelligence of 
thine own soul; for then shalt thou believe in God and immortality. 
God is the Father of humanity. God's children are immortal." 

" Sin is the source and consequence of unbelief: all unbelief is ar- 
rogant. Sin is the source of the perversion of our first fundamental 
ideas and of our pure natural feelings. Sin destroys faith in God 
and child-like feelings toward him." 

"Open sin — defiance of God by man." 



118 PESTALOZZI. 

"I base all freedom upon justice; but I see no certain justice in 
this world, except that inspired by simplicity, piety, and love. All 
family administration of justice — which is the greatest, purest, and 
most generally enjoyed — has no source except love." 

"As all justice rests upon love, so all freedom rests upon justice. 
The source of justice and of all worldly blessings, the source of the 
love and brotherhood of men, is the great idea of religion — that we 
are all the children of God." 

" Forgetfulness of God, neglect of the filial relation of humanity, 
is the source of the destruction of all morality and wisdom. There- 
fore, the loss of a filial feeling toward God is the greatest misfortune, 
since it renders all God's paternal instruction impossible. The resto- 
ration of this lost filial feeling is the salvation of the lost children of 
God on earth." 

"The Man of God who, through sorrow and death, reestablished 
this universally-lost filial feeling toward God is the Savior of the 
world — the Mediator between God and god-forgetting humanity. 
His teachings are pure justice ; an instructive philosophy for all peo- 
ple ; the revelation of God the Father to his lost children." 

This essay, omitted by Schmid in the publication of Pestalozzi's 
works, is the more interesting, as it shows that he had at that early 
period formed clear ideas of the natural processes of education ; and 
that he considered education, not merely in its reference to mental 
training, but in its widest sense — in its relation to domestic life, to 
moral and religious growth. But, judging that most people would not 
be gained by mere aphorisms of truth, he wisely determined to de- 
tail his ideas further in the shape of an educational novel, which 
would place a faithful mirror before the eyes of the people, expose 
their foibles, vices, and disorders, and at the same time supply the 
remedy in the form of good examples. 

This was accomplished in 1781, by the publication of "Leonard 
and Gertrude " 



CHAPTER II. 
"LEONARD AND GERTRUDE." 

THE simple style in which it is written, the truthful and animated 
pictures of common life which it contains, and the absence from 
its pages of abstruse reasonings and exhibitions of party spirit, procured 
for this work a great popularity. It is also characterized by its sin- 
cere and earnest pleading for all that ennobles man, restores peace to 
the soul, puts an end to the conflict between the innate aspirations for 
truth and the tendency to ignoble passions, and establishes confidence 
between rulers and subjects by a due appreciation of their respective 
rights and duties. Well might Pestalozzi exclaim, in the preface to 
the first edition: "I take no part in the disputes of men about 
opinions ; but I consider that every thing which tends to make men 
good, true, and faithful, which cherishes love toward God and our 
neighbors, and brings blessing and peace into our dwellings, should 
be implanted in the hearts of all." In the preface to the second 
edition, he says: "Whoever wishes to do his duty to God and to 
posterity, to public right and public order, and to the security of fam- 
ily happiness, must, in one way or another, accord with the spirit of 
my book, and seek the same object. This is my comfort: when these 
truths germinate, for germinate they must, they will bear fruit." 

The materials for "Leonard and Gertrude" were gathered during 
long years of suffering and disappointment ; and the Avork itself was 
the result of an intense love, which made the cause of the poor and 
friendless its own. He had already failed in a practical attempt to 
relieve the unfortunate, but he had obtained a deeper insight into 
the causes which pei-petuated the evils of society. With a bleeding 
heart, he had seen that poverty, unless counterbalanced by a healthy 
culture of the mind and soul, was generally accompanied by moral 
and physical wretchedness ; by intemperance, ignorance, and supersti- 
tion. He was also able to trace part of the sufferings of the poor to 
the selfishness and hardness of the rich, many of whom derived a 
shameful profit from the improvidence of their unfortunate brethren. 

(119) 



120 PESTALOZZI. 

He had also, occasionally, seen in the cottages of the poor, cheerful- 
ness, peace, and comfort; and this spirit he had, with great certainty, 
always traced to the influence of a sound home education, conducted 
by an intelligent mother. 

The characters of this tale, far from engaging in brilliant or daz- 
zling actions, are great in their very simplicity and truth to nature. 
The principal ones are : Gertrude, a pattern of a good and in- 
telligent wife and mother — an educator who tries to fulfill the 
duties of her office to their fullest extent, without troubling her head 
with plans of emancipation; Leonard, her husband, who, however, 
plays only a secondary part ; Arner, the lord of the manor, who tries 
to effect a thorough reform in the administration of the parish en- 
trusted to his care; Ernst, a worthy clergyman, who assists Arner, 
and works on the hearts and convictions, and not on the fears and 
prejudices, of his parishioners; Glulphy, the school-master, in whose 
teaching and discipline Pestalozzi embodies some of the favorite ideas 
of education which he afterward matured ; Hummel, the bailiff, 
chief magistrate, and judge of the village — the personification of 
wickedness, avarice, and pride — a man with a heart hardened through 
many years of mismanagement and crime ; and Rudi, one of the 
victims of the bailiff, whose story forms some of the most affecting 
chapters of the book. 

To exhibit the intention of the author and the spirit which ani- 
mated him in his work, we make the following selections : 

A KIND-HEARTED MAN, WHO, NEVERTHELESS, MAKES HIS WIFE 
AND CHILDREN VERY UNHAPPY. 

There lived in Bonnal a mason. He was called Leonard, and his 
wife, Gertrude. He had seven children, and some property; but he 
had this fault — that he often let himself be tempted to the tavern. 
When he was once seated there he behaved like a madman, and was 
often led from drinking to gaming, and thus deprived of the produce 
of his labor. Whenever this had happened at night, Leonard re- 
pented in the morning; for, when he saw his wife and children want- 
ing bread, it went so to his heart that he trembled and cast down his 
eyes to conceal his tears. 

Gertrude was the best wife in the village ; but she and her bloom- 
ing children were in danger of being robbed of their father and 
driven from their home, and of sinking into the greatest misery, 
because Leonard would not let wine alone. 

Gertrude saw the approaching danger, and felt it most keenly. 



LEONARD AND GERTRUDE. 12 L 

When she fetched grass from the meadow, when she took hay from 
the loft, when she set away the milk in her clean pans, whatever she 
was doing, she was tormented by the thought that her meadow, her 
haystack, and her little hut, might soon be taken away from her. 
When her children were standing around her, or sitting in her lap, 
her anguish was still greater, and the tears streamed down her 
cheeks. 

Hitherto, however, she had been able to conceal this silent weeping 
from her children ; but, on Wednesday before Easter, when she had 
waited long, and her husband did not come home, her grief overcame 
her, and the children saw her tears. "O mother!" exclaimed they, 
" you are weeping," and they pressed closer to her. Sorrow and 
anxiety were on every countenance. With deep sobs, heavy downcast 
looks, and silent tears the children surrounded the mother, and even 
the baby in her arms betrayed a feeling of pain hitherto unknown, — all 
this quite broke her heart. Her anguish burst out in a loud cry, and 
all the children wept with her, and there was a sound of lamentation 
as Leonard opened the door. 

Gertrude, who lay with her face on the bed, heard not the opening 
of the door, nor the entrance of the father ; neither did the children 
perceive him, for they saw only their weeping mother. Thus did 
Leonard find them. 

God in Heaven sees the tears of the wretched, and puts a limit to 
their grief. The mercy of God brought Leonard to witness this 
scene, which pierced his soul. The paleness of death was on his 
countenance, and he could scarcely articulate, "Lord Jesus, what is 
this!" Then the mother saw him for the first time, the children 
looked up, and their loud expressions of grief were hushed. 

"Tell me, Gertrude," said he, "what is this dreadful trouble in 
which I find thee ? " 

"Oh! my dear," answered she, "heavy cares press upon ray heart, 
and when thou art away, sorrow preys more keenly upon me." 

"Gertrude," said Leonard, "I know why thou weepest, wretch that 
I am ! " 

Then Gertrude sent away the children, collected all her strength, 
and took courage to urge him not to bring any further trouble and 
misery upon his children. She was pious, and trusted in God ; and 
before she spoke, she prayed silently for her husband and children ; 
her heart was comforted, and she said: "Leonard, trust in the 
mercy of God, and take courage to do nothing but what is right." 

"O Gertrude! Gertrude!" exclaimed Leonard, and his tears fell 
in torrents. 




ffPff 



A Kind-hearted Mail. 



(122) 



LEONARD AND GERTRUDE. 123 

" Oh, take courage, and trust in thy Father in Heaven, and all will 
be better with thee. It goes to my heart to make thee weep. I would 
gladly keep every trouble from thee. Thou knowest that, by thy side, 
I could be content with bread and water, and the still midnight is 
often to me an hour of cheerful labor for thee and the children. But, 
if I concealed from thee my anxiety lest I be separated from thee and 
these little ones, I should be no mother to them, nor true to thee. 
Our children are yet full of gratitude and love toward us ; but if we 
do not continue to act as parents, their love and tenderness must 
needs decrease ; and only think what thou wouldst feel if Nicolas had 
no longer a home, and must go out to service ; if he and all these 
dear children should become poor through our fault — should cease to 
thank us, and begin to weep for us, their parents. Leonard, couldst 
thou bear to see thy children driven out of doors to seek their bread 
at another's table? Oh! it would kill me." 80 spoke Gertrude, and 
the tears fell down her cheeks. 

Leonard, not less affected, cried : " What shall I do, miserable 
creature that I am? What can I do? I am more wretched than 
thou knowest. O Gertrude ! Gertrude ! " He was again silent, and 
wrung his hands. 

" O my dear husband, do not distrust God's mercy ! Whatever 
it be, speak, that we may consult together and comfort each other." 



Till- EVENING BEFORE A SABBATH IN THE HOUSE OF A GOOD 

MOTHER. 

Gertrude was alone with her children. The events of the week and 
thoughts of the approaching festiyal filled her heart. In thoughtful 
silence she prepared the supper, took from the closet the Sunday 
clothes for the family, and laid them out ready for the morrow. 
When she had completed her work she assembled her children around 
the table to pray with them. It was her custom on Saturdays, at the 
hour of evening prayer, to remind them of their faults and of such 
• occurrences as were peculiarly calculated to interest and please them. 
This day she remembered, especially, the loving-kindness of God 
toward her during the past week ; and she wished, as far as possible, 
to impress deeply on the minds of the children the tokens which 
they had received of the goodness and mercy of God. 

The children sat round her in silence, with their little hands folded 
for prayer, and the mother began thus : 

"Children, I have good news to tell you. Your dear father has 
had very excellent work given to him this week, by which he will 



124 PESTALOZZI. 

earn much more than he could before; and we may hope, my chil- 
dren, to eat our bread with less care and sorrow in future. Give 
thanks, therefore, unto God, our loving Father in Heaven, for his 
goodness toward us. Remember often the old times when I was 
obliged, with care and anxiety, to portion out to you every mouth- 
ful of bread. Oh, it grieved my heart that many a time I 
could not give you enough. But our heavenly Father knew that 
it would be better for you, my dears, to be accustomed to poverty 
and patience, and learn to conquer your own desires, than to live in 
plenty. Oh, my children, remember, as long as you live, our days 
of poverty and the distress and sorrow we have endured, and if our 
condition is improved, henceforth be mindful of those who surfer 
even as you have. Will you do so ? " 

" Oh, yes, dear mother, we will," replied the children. 

" Well, then, Nicolas, whom dost thou know that is suffering most 
from hunger? " 

" It is little Iludi," said Nicolas. " He is almost starving. He eats 
grass from the ground." 

" Wouldst thou like to give him thy supper now and then?" 

"Oh, yes, mother. May I to-morrow?" 

" Certainly, thou mavest," said the mother. Then turning to 
Betti, she asked: "And thou — to whom wouldst thou give thy supper?" 

Betti named some poor child, and so did the other children as each 
was asked in turn, all being delighted in anticipation of the pleasure 
they would bestow. After some moments the mother remarked : 
"That is enough, my children. Now see what beautiful presents 
his lordship Arner has made you." 

" Oh! the bright pennies! Will you show them to us?" cried the 
children. 

"Yes, after prayers," said Gertrude; and the children shouted with 

joy- 

"You are noisy, my children," chided the mother. "If something 
good comes to you, always think of God, the giver. I rejoice with 
you ; but, when people are loud and violent in their joy or sorrow, 
peace and evenness of temper are lost. You see, children, when 
you thank your father for something, you do not make much noise; 
you fall upon his neck silently, and when you really feel it in your 
lien its, the tears come to your eyes. So it should be toward God. 
If you feel very much joy on account of the good He does you, and 
at the same time it touches your heart, I am sure you will not say 
many words or make much noise, but the tears will come to your 
eyes in thinking how good your heavenly Father is." 



LEONARD AND GERTRUDE. 125 

Gertrude, after giving more advice to her children, changed the 
subject of conversation by asking: "But, my dears, how has your 
conduct been this week ? " The children looked at each other, but 
said nothing. 

"Anne, hast thou been a good girl this week?" asked Gertrude. 

" No, mother ; thou knowest what I did with my little brother," re- 
plied Anne. 

"Oh, yes, Anne. The poor child might have been very much in- 
jured. Babes left in that way have sometimes died. Besides, only 
think, if thou wast shut up by thyself in a room, and left to cry and 
to suffer thirst and hunger. Really, Anne, I should not be able to 
leave this house for a moment if I were not so sure that thou wouldst 
take care of the baby." 

"Trust me, dear mother; I will not leave him again for a single 
moment," pleaded Anne. 

" Well, I hope thou wilt not give me another such fright. Nic- 
olas, how has it been with thee this week ? " 

"I know of nothing wrong," he quickly answered. 

"Hast thou forgotten that thou didst throw down Kate last Mon- 
day," said the mother. 

" I did not do it on purpose, mother." 

"To be sure thou didst not. To do such a thing on purpose would 
be wicked, indeed. Art thou not ashamed to make such an excuse?" 

"I am sorry for it. I will be more careful," said Nicolas. 

" Be sure not to forget it, my dear. Believe me, thy carelessness 
will certainly make thee unhappy. Well, Betti, how hast thou be- 
haved this week ? " 

"I am sure I can not think of any thing wrong, mother," replied 
she. 

"Art thou quite sure, Betti ? " 

" I am, indeed, mother, as nearly as I can recollect. I should not 
mind telling it if I knew." 

"It is very odd that even when thou hast nothing to tell, thou 
answerest with as many words as another who has a great deal to 
say." 

"Well, what have I said then?" asked Betti. 

" Thou hast said nothing, I know, but thou hast given a long answer. 
We have told thee a thousand times that thou art too forward. Thou 
never thinkest what thou shouldst say, and yet thou art always talk- 
ing." Gertrude here brought to Betti's recollection a piece of for- 
wardness — giving an envious neighbor some information which 
brought her father into trouble. 



126 PESTALOZZI. 

"I am very sorry for it," replied Betti ; "but neither thou nor 
father bad said a word about not wishing me to tell of it." 

"Then it will be necessary that to whatever we say in this room 
Ave must always add: Now, this is a thing which Betti may gossip 
about at the neighbors' door, and at the fountain ; but not this, and 
this," replied Gertrude. 

"I do beg thy pardon, mother; I did not mean it so." 

" Thou hast been told once for all, that thou art not to talk of any 
thing which is no business of thine ; but it is all in vain. There is 
no setting thee out of that habit, except by severe means ; and the 
very first time I overtake thee in idle gossip, I shall make use of the 
rod." 

The tears burst from poor Betti's eyes when her mother mentioned 
the rod. Gertrude saw it, and said: "The greatest mischief, Betti, 
often arises out of idle gossip, and thou must be cured of that fault." 

Thus the mother discoursed with them all. Afterward, Nicolas re- 
peated the Saturday evening prayer which Gertrude had taught him: 
"Dear Father in Heaven, thou art always kind to men on earth. 
From thee all things come that our dear lather and mother give us. 
Dear Father, we that are sitting here and praying 
together, are brothers and sisters ; therefore, we will be kind to each 
other, and do to each other no harm, but all the good we can. We 
elder ones will take care of the younger ones with all faithfulness 
and diligence, that our dear father and mother may go comfortably 
about their work for our bread. Alas! this is all we can do for 
them, for all the trouble and expense they have for our sakes. Re- 
ward them, Father in Heaven, for all they do for us, and make us 
obedient unto their commands, that we may remain dear unto them 
to the end of their lives." 

Here Nicolas was to stop, and they prayed according to what 
had happened through the week, as follows: "We thank thee, O 
heavenly Father, that thou hast lightened the heavy burden of our 
parents, and the care for the bread for themselves and their chil- 
dren, and hast blessed our dear father with good and profitable em- 
ployment. We thank thee that our lord Arner with paternal affec- 
tion protects, comforts, and assists us in all our misery and distress. 
We thank thee for all the blessings which thou hast betowed on us 
through him." 

Then the mother taught Betti to pray in this manner: "Forgive 
me, O my God, my besetting sin, and teach me to bridle my tongue; 
to be silent when I ought not to speak, and to answer considerately 
and directly when I am asked." 



LEONARD AND GERTRUDE: 127 

And Nicolas thus: "Preserve me, Father, from all hastiness, 
and teach me to he on my guard, and to see what I do, and who is 
ahout me." 

And Anne: "I am sorry, pood God, for leaving my dear little 
brother so thoughtlessly, and so frightening my dear, good mother. 
I will not do it again in all my life. Forgive me, I pray thee, OGod." 

The mother then said: "The Lord he with you; the Lord bless 
you; the Lord let the light of his countenance shine upon you and 
be merciful unto you." 

After this, mother and children sat yet a little while in that solemn 
silence which a true prayer always imposes. 

Betti interrupted this silence: "Wilt thou show us the new pen- 
nies?" said she to her mother. 

" I will," replied the mother; "hut thou art always the first to 
speak, Betti." 

Nicolas now jumped from his seat, and pushed forward that he 
might be nearer the candle and see the new pennies better, and in 
doing so hurt the baby, so that he began to cry. 

Then said the mother: "Nicolas, this is very had. Thou didst 
promise, not more than a quarter of an hour ago, that thou wouldst 
be more careful, and now see what thou hast done." 

"O mother," said Nicolas, "I am very sorry for it. It shall not 
happen any more." 

"That is what thou didst just now promise to God Almighty, and 
yet thou hast been careless again," said the mother. "Thou shalt go 
to bed without thy supper." 

Thus saying, she led him away into the chamber. His brothers 
and sisters all stood about grieved, for they were sorry that poor Nic- 
ola- should go to bed without his supper. " What a pity it is that 
you will not be governed by kindness," said the mother, when she 
came back. 

"Let him come out again for once," begged the children. 

" Xo, my dears; he must be cured of his thoughtless habits," was 
the mother's reply. 

"Well, then, we will not see the pennies till to-morrow, that he 
may see them with us," said Anne. 

"Well spoken, Anne," answered the mother; "he shall see them 
with you." 

After this she gave the children their supper, and then led them to 
the chamber where Nicolas was still crying. 

" Be very careful another time, my dear Nicolas," said the mother 
to him. 



128 PESTALOZZI. 

Nicolas answered: "Pray forgive, dear, dear mother! do forgive 
and kiss me ! " 

Gertrude kissed him, and a burning tear flowed down her cheek, 
when she said to him : "O Nicolas, try to become more careful." 

Nicolas threw both his arms round her neck, and said: " O mother, 
forgive me." 

Gertrude once more blessed her children, and then returned to her 
room, which was lighted by a small lamp. 

She was now quite alone, and her heart was still in silent prayer, 
which inexpressibly moved her soul. The feeling of God's goodness, 
the hope of life everlasting, the sense of that internal joy and peace 
which dwells in those who trust in their Heavenly Father, — all 
stirred her soul, and she fell on her knees, and a flood of tears flowed 
over her cheeks. 

[The moral to be drawn from this lesson is contained in the follow- 
ing directions to parents in regard to their children : 

First. — Observe the nature and propensities of your children, in 
order to be able to educate them according to their individual wants 
and talents. 

Second. — Speak to them in a simple, intelligent manner, that your 
words and sentiments may be fully understood. A prayer from the 
heart, applied to circumstances, is better than a formal one mechan- 
ically repeated. 

Third. — Do not content yourselves with preaching of love and 
charity ; but try to make the children loving and charitable. Lead 
them to experience the pleasure of self-sacrifice, that they may better 
understand this crowning excellence of the human character. 

Fourth. — Act as the mediator between your children and God; for 
they can not appreciate his goodness and greatness. In order to be 
able to do this, become yourselves examples of love, truthfulness, and 
justice. 

Fifth.— Be firm, and, at the same time, kind. Real love never 
overlooks faults: it corrects them. The ultimate gratitude of chil- 
dren is of more value than their temporary gratification.] 



THE DEATH-BED OF THE (iRANDMOTHER. 

Rudi was at home with his four children. His wife had died three 
months before, and Ins mother, who now lay dying on a miserable bed, 



LEON, MID AND GERTEUDE. 129 

said to him': "Dear Rudi, bring me some dried leaves to till the 
coverlet: I feel so cold." 

"I will, mother," said Rudi, "as soon as the fire in the stove is 
out." 

"Is there any wood left, Rudi? I fear there is not. You can 
not well go into the woods and leave me and the children. Oh ! my 
son, I am a burden to thee." 

" Do not speak thus. Thou art no burden to me," said Rudi. " Oh 
that I could give thee what thou needest ! Thou sufferest from thirst 
and hunger, and dost not complain : this pierces my heart, mother." 

"Be easy about me, Rudi. The Lord be praised, my pain is not 
great. God will help me soon, and my blessing will be upon thee, 
and reward thee for thy love." 

" Never before was I so grieved at my poverty as now, when 1 can 
not help thee. O God ! in thy sick and suffering state there is 
nothing to relieve thy wants," said Rudi sadly. 

"When the end approaches we want but little, and what we want is 
given by our Father in Heaven," said the mother. "I thank Him, 
my son. He gives me strength in my dying hour." 

"Dost thou really think, mother, that thou wilt not get well?" 

"Yes, Rudi ; I am sure of it." 

"O God!" 

" Be consoled, my son : I enter into a better life. Be comforted : 
thou wert the joy of my younger years, and now thou art the conso- 
lation of my age. Even now I thank God that thy hands will soon 
close my eyes. Then I shall come to God and pray for thee, and 
thou wilt prosper. Remember, all the sufferings of this life, when 
they are over, are but a blessing to us. When the fruit of life 
ripens in autumn, and the tree casts off its leaves for the sleep of 
winter, then the sorrows of life are sacred, and the joys appear like 
a dream. Remember my words, thou wilt prosper in spite of thy 
sufferings. But there is one thing I must tell thee," said the dying 
woman. 

"What is it, mother?" 

"I saw yesterday how Rudeli hid himself behind my bed; and 
ate baked potatoes. He also gave his brothers and sisters, and they 
ate in a stealthy manner. O my son, these potatoes were not ours, or 
the boy would have thrown them on the table, and loudly called his 
companions to share them. Alas! he would have brought one to his 
grandmother, as he has often done before. I was always touched when 
he brought me something in his hand, and said, in his pretty way, 
' Eat, grandma.' O my son, only think, if this darling boy should 
P. 9. 



130 PESTALOZZI. 

become a thief. How this thought lms tormented me since yester- 
day! Where is he? Bring him here, that I may speak to him." 

The father sighed, went in search of the boy, and led him to the 
bed of his grandmother. The dying woman raised herself up, laid 
her hand upon the boy, and bent her weary head upon his. 

The little one cried: "Grandma, what is the matter? Thou wilt 
not die! Oh, do not die, grandma!" 

She answered, in a broken voice: " Kndeli, 1 certainly shall die 
soon." For want of breath she could not proceed, and was obliged to 
lie down. Father and son were melted in tears. Soon the sufferer 
recovered a little, and said : "I am better now, when I lie down." 

"Thou wilt not die now, grandma! Do not die!" pleaded the 
little boy. 

"Do not grieve about it, Rndeli ; I like to die, for I shall go to a 
kind Father. If thou eouldst know how I long for it, thou wouldst 
not weep for me." 

" I will die with thee, grandma," said Rudeli. 

The grandmother, smiling feebly, replied : " No, my love ; thou wilt 
not die with me. Thou wilt, if it pleases God, live long and become 
a good and honest man, and a help to thy father when he shall be 
old and feeble. Wilt thou promise me to be obedient to him, and to 
behave well ? " 

"Oh, yes, grandma; I will do so certainly." 

"O child, our Father in Heaven, to whom 1 shall soon go, sees 
and hears all we do and promise. Dost thou know this, and believe 
it, Rudeli?" 

" Yes, grandma ; I know this, and believe it," answered the little 
boy. 

" Why, then, didst thou yesterday eat potatoes that were not ours?" 
asked the grandmother. 

"Pardon me, grandma," entreated Rudeli; "I shall never do so 
any more." 

" Were they stolen?" 

" Ye -es, grandma," faltered the boy. 

" From whom were they stolen?" 

" From —the — mason, Leonard," stammered Rudeli. 

"Thou must go to him and ask his forgiveness," said the grand- 
mother. 

"O grandma, for God's sake! I have not the courage to do this." 

"Thou must go without fail, child. Thou wilt think more of what 
is right in future. But, I beg, do not steal any more, even if thou 
shouldst feel hungi'v." 



LEONARD AND GERTRUDE. 131 

"I will not steal any more, grandmother, even if hunger should 
kill me," answered the boy. 

" AVell, then, may God, in whom I trust, bless thee and preserve 
thee, my dear ! " She pressed him to her heart, and then weeping 
said: "Thou must now go to the mason and ask his pardon. Rudi, 
go with him, and tell Leonard that I am sorry not to be able to re- 
turn the potatoes, and that I invoke for him and his family the bless- 
ing of God. I am grieved to think of them, too ; they also lack the 
necessaries of life, and if Gertrude did not exert herself day and 
night, they could hardly support their large family. Thou, Rudi, I 
am sure, wilt work for them till the wrong they have suffered is 
made up." 

"With all my heart, mother," said Rudi. At tins moment the 
bailiff Hummel knocked on the window. The sick woman recognized 
him by his cough, and said, "Oh, woe to us, Rudi ! It is the bailiff! 
I am sure the bread and butter you procured for my soup is not yet 
paid for." 

" I pray you, mother, do not trouble about it," said Rudi. "It is 
of no consequence; I shall work for him and help him reap his corn 
at harvest time." 

"Alas! he will not wait till then," said the mother. Rudi left the 
room to see what the bailiff wanted. The mother, left alone, said to 
herself: "God forgive the poor misled man. Since our unfortunate 
lawsuit, I have always felt as if pierced by a dagger on seeing him ; 
and now, alas! must he come in my dying hours to the window? 
But it is God's will that I forgive him, that I conquer my feelings 
and pray for his soul. I will do so. O God, thou didst watch our 
lawsuit ; Father in Heaven, forgive him." 

She heard the bailiff talk in a loud voice, and said tremblingly: 
" lie is angry. Poor Rudi! for my sake, thou tallest again into his 
power." She heard his voice once more, and fainted. Rudeli ran 
out of the room, crying, "Father, do come in: I believe grand- 
mother is dead." 

Rudi, in great fright, said: "Excuse me, bailiff, I must go back to 
the room." The bailiff shouted after him, "Oh, what a misfortune 
if the old witch should die at last ! " 

Rudi, hastening back to his mother, did not hear these shocking 
words. She had recovered from her fit, and, opening her eyes, said: 
"He was angry, Rudi, was he not? He would not wait for the 
payment?" 

"No, mother," replied Rudi, "he brought a very good message. 
But hast thou entirely recovered?" 



132 PESTALOZZL 

" I have," says the mother, fixing her eyes on him in deep anxiety. 
"But what good can this man bring? Dost thou mean to deceive 
me in order to sutler alone? I know he lias threatened thee." 

"No, mother, not at all," said Kudi. "He has announced that I 
have work at the church which is going to be built, at half a dollar 
per day." 

" God be praised!" said the mother. "Is it really true?" 

"There is no doubt of it," answered Rudi ; "and the work will 
last more than a year." 

"Now I can die in peace," said the mother. "Thou art good, O 
God. Be thou a good Father to this family until the end of their 
days. O Rudi, believe what the proverb says: 'The more threaten- 
ing the rod, the nearer is God.'" 

She was silent for awhile, and then continued: "I believe my end 
is near. My breath becomes shorter. The Lord's will be done. I 
will now take leave." 

Rudi took off his cap with a trembling hand, fell on his knees at 
the side of his mother's bed, folded his hands, raised his eyes toward 
heaven, and sobbed in the agony of his emotion. 

"Cheer up," said the mother. "I trust in life eternal, where we 
shall meet again. Death is a moment which passes soon, and I fear 
it not, I know that my Redeemer liveth, and that he shall stand at 
the latter day upon earth ; and though worms destroy this body, yet 
in mv flesh shall I see God. I shall see him for myself; mine eyes 
shall behold him, and not another's." 

Rudi so far recovered as to say: "Then give me your blessing, O 
my mother, (rod grant that I may follow thee soon to a better life." 

Then said the mother: "Father in heaven, hear me, and give thy 
blessing to my child, the only one thou hast given me. Rudi, my 
(Joel and Redeemer will be with thee, and as he blessed Isaac and 
Jacob for their father's sake, so may he grant thee abundance of good 
for my sake, that thy heart may again rejoice, and exult, and praise . 
his name. Hear me now, Rudi, and do what I tell thee. Teach thy 
children order and obedience, that they may not become disorderly 
and dissipated in their poverty. Teach them to trust in God in 
heaven, and to remain united as brothers and sisters through troub- 
les and joys; then they will be happy. Forgive also the bailiff, and, 
when I am dead and buried, go to him and tell him that I have died 
with a reconciled heart, and that if God will listen to my prayers, 
he will, for his own good, come to a knowledge of himself before his 
death." . 

After awhile she continued: "Rudi, give me my two Bibles, my. 



LEONARD AND GERTRUDE. 133 

prayer-book, and the document which is in that box." Rudi arose 
from his knees and brought the desired objects to his mother. "Now, 
bring me all the children," said she. 

He called them from the table, round which they sat crying, and 
they, too, knelt at the bed of their grandmother, who addressed them 
thus: "Po not weep, O my beloved ones! Your Father in heaven 
will protect and bless you. You are dear to me, my children, and 
I am grieved to leave you so poor and without a mother to care for 
you. But trust in God, and hope in him always, and you will find 
in him more than a father's help and a mother's care. Remember 
me, my beloved ones: I leave you nothing but my love, and I take 
your love with me. My Bibles and my prayer-book are almost all I 
have, but they have given me peace and consolation a thousand 
times, during my hard pilgrimage. Let God's word be your conso- 
lation and joy. O my dear children, may you help and advise each 
other, and be sincere, kind, and obliging toward all men, for then 
will your lives be happy. Rudi, keep for Bessie the larger, and for 
Rudeli the smaller Bible, and for the two little ones the prayer-book 
in memory of me. Alas ! I have nothing for thee, Rudi ; but thou 
wilt not need any thing to remind thee of me." 

Once more she was obliged to stop from faintness ; her breath be- 
came shorter; but, making another effort, she said to Rudeli: "Give 
me thy hand, my dear, and never steal any thing again." 

"No, no, grandmother, believe me," repeated the little boy, with 
a flow of tears. 

"Well, I do believe thee, and pray God for thee," said the grand- 
mother. "Look here: this paper I give to thy father; it is a testi- 
monial from the clergyman in whose house I have served. When 
thou art older, read it and think of me, and be pious and honest." 
It was a testimonial from the late clergyman of Eichstadt, to the 
effect that Catherine had served in his house for ten years, and had 
helped him train his children after the death of his Avife, and had 
done it in a most trustworthy manner, and that he could never forget 
what she had done for himself and his family in his need. Cather- 
ine had indeed earned a considerable sum in the service of this cler- 
gyman, and had given it to her husband for the purchase of land, 
which the bailiff afterwards had claimed and obtained through per- 
jury and fraud. 

After a few directions in regard to the children's clothing, and to 
the care necessary for their health, she again said: "I am very sorry 
to leave thee so forsaken ; but take courage and do what thou canst. 
The wages which thou, Rudi, wilt earn in thy new engagement, will 



134 PESTALOZZI. 

help thee considerably. How I thank God for this blessing!" She 
then paused, and father and children remained on their knees for 
some time longer, and said all the prayers they knew. They then 
arose, and Rudi said to his mother: "I will get thee dried leaves for 
thy coverlet." She answered: "There is no need for it now, since 
the room feel- warmer. Thou hadst better go to the mason with the 
little boy." 

Rudi whispered to Bessie to take care of grandmother, and if any 
thing should happen, to send Annette to the mason's house, where 
she would find him. Rudi then took his trembling boy by the hand, 
and went with him to the mason's. Gertrude, who was at home 
alone, saw immediately that both had tears in their eyes. " What 
do you want, neighbor? Why do you weep? Why does this little 
one weep ? " questioned she, taking Rudeli by the hand. 

" Gertrude, I am wretched," said Rudi. " I must see thee, be- 
cause Rudeli has taken potatoes from thy cellar. Grandmother saw 
him eat them yesterday, and he has confessed it. Pardon me, Ger- 
trude, my mother is dying. O God, she has taken leave of us. I 
am so troubled that I hardly know what I say. I am sorry not to 
be able to give them back now, but I will work willingly for thee. 
Pardon him ; the boy did it when tormented with hunger." 

"Do not speak of this, Rudi," said Gertrude; "and thou, dear 
boy, must promise me never again to take any thing of any body." 
She then kissed him and said: "Thou hast a good grandmother; 
try to be as good and pious as she." 

"Forgive me, lady, I will not steal any more, I assure thee," said 
Rudeli. 

"No, child, do not steal any more. Thou dost not yet know how 
miserable and wretched thieves become. If thou art hungry, come 
to me and tell me so, and when I can, I will give thee what thou 
needest." 

Then said Rudi: "I thank God that I can now earn something 
through the building of the church, and hope that hunger will no 
longer lead him astray." 

" We were glad to see that Arner did think of thee in this build- 
ing," replied Gertrude. " I am so glad that thy mother could live 
long enough to hear this consoling news." 

" Oh, tell thy husband that I will work honestly for him from 
morning till evening, and I insist on having the price of the potatoes 
deducted from my wages." 

"Not a word about that, Rudi," replied Gertrude. "My husband 
knows his duty better. We also have been much relieved by the 



LEONARD AND GERTRUDE. 135 

contract for the church. But, Rudi, I will go with thee to thy 
mother, if she is so near death." 

Gertrude filled Rudeli's pocket with dried fruit, and then they all 
went to Rudi's house. She saluted the dying woman, and, weeping, 
took her hand. 

"Thou art weeping," said Catherine. " We ought to do so. Hast 
thou quite forgiven us?" 

"Forgiven thee what? Catherine, thy misery affects me, and 
more still thy goodness and care. God will certainly hless thee for 
the care thou hast bestowed on these poor children." 

"Hast thou forgiven us?" again asked Catherine. 

"Do not mention this! O Catherine, I do wish I could help thee 
in thy present sickness," answered Gertrude. 

"God will soon help," answered Catherine. "Rudeli, hast thou 
asked her pardon. Has she forgiven thee?" 

"Oh, yes; see how kind she is!" answered Rudeli, showing her 
the pocket of fruit. 

"Slumber creeps over me," murmured the dying woman. — "But 
hast thou asked her forgiveness with all thy soul?" 

" Yes, grandmother, believe me I was in full earnest," said Rudeli. 

"Slumber overpowers me, and my eyes get dark. Gertrude — I 
want to ask you something — but may I? — This wretched child — 
has stolen from thee — these poor forsaken children — they are so 
forsaken — (she stretched out her hand, but her eyes were shut) 
may I hope — obey her, Rudeli." Without finishing her sentence 
she expired. 

Rudi, believing that she slept, said: "Let no one speak a word! 
she sleeps. Oh, that she might recover ! " Gertrude, conjecturing 
that it might be death, said so to Rudi. ..... 

I will not attempt to describe the desolation of the poor man and 
his children. Reader, let me pause here and weep ; for it moves my 
heart to think how humanity rises from the dust of poverty to im- 
mortal bliss, and how it withers in the pomp and splendor of this 
world. 

Oh, man learn to appreciate the value of life at the death-bed of 
the just; and you who despise and pity the poor without knowing 
them, tell me, whether he has been unblessed or unhappy who can 
die thus? 

PASSAGE FROM A FUNERAL SERMON. 

" Blessed is the man, of whom, when he is dead, no one speaks 
much; blessed is he, if the poor, in silence, shed tears to his memory; 



136 PESTAXOZZI. 

blessed if his wife, his children, his friends, his servants, grieve for 
him. But if thousands follow his bier, and every one speaks of him, 
then ask T with mistrust, if the hearts of his wife and children bleed, 
if his friends and servants weep because he is with them no more. 
And generally I find the eyes of all these dry." 

With these extracts, which serve to show the aim of the book, we 
must be content. It is one of the works of Pestalozzi, which has 
been translated into other languages, and lately into English by Hon. 
Henry Barnard, late U. S. Commissioner of Education. It is not 
probable that the work will ever become very popular with a people 
differing so widely in thought, feeling, and sentiment from those to 
whom it was first addressed. Yet human nature is the same every- 
where, and to those who can pierce through the shell of local man- 
ners to the love, the wisdom, the pathos within, it may prove a 
source of pleasure and profit. 



CHAPTER III. 

"CHRISTOPHER AND ELIZA." 

DOMESTIC education and social reform were considered so im- 
portant by Pestalozzi, that, after completing " Leonard and Ger- 
trude," he wrote another treatise upon these subjects, entitled " Chris- 
topher and Eliza," which was published in 1782. In the preface to 
the first edition of this book, Pestalozzi remarks that it was written 
principally to supply a commentary to " Leonard and Gertrude," the 
moral lessons of which he wished to impress upon the convictions of 
the people. He concludes by saying: "I know it will appear tedi- 
ous to mere novel readers, but I desire that it should be read in 
humble cottages, many of the inmates of which will find in it senti- 
ments corresponding to their own experiences." 

Forty years afterward, when preparing for the republication of his 
works, he confesses that the book did not get into the hands of the 
common people, that it could not be found even in the village 
where he lived. As the principal cause of this apparent neglect, he 
accuses the spirit of the times, which, he says, "was opposed to his 
reformatory notions on education and other subjects." 

We do not think this criticism either just or true, since the public 
had welcomed the same ideas in " Leonard and Gertrude." On the 
contrary, we believe, this want of popularity was entirely attributable 
to the manner in which the subject was treated. Truths are popular 
when presented in the guise of an interesting story, written in simple 
language; but they are exceedingly unpalatable when in the form of 
abstruse reasonings and dry expositions. 

In the book under consideration, Pestalozzi committed several grave 
errors; yet it contains many passages which bear the stamp of the 
vigor and originality of his thought. 

The personages, who, during thirty evenings, are supposed to read 
and discuss as many chapters of "Leonard and Gertrude," are: 
Christopher, a wealthy and intelligent farmer; Eliza, his wife; Jo- 
siah, their servant ; and Fritz, their son. 

By a strange anomaly, which is in strong contrast with the usual 

(137) 



138 PESTALOZZI. 

order of things, Josiah is the principal speaker, and the one who 
deals most in abstruse reflections. Christopher is next in importance; 
while Eliza only occasionally makes shrewd and sensible remarks, 
mostly upon moral and educational questions. Fritz is a silent list- 
ener, but, at the end of each conversation, is requested to sum up 
all the maxims which he has gathered from the story or the discus- 
sion. The little prodigy does this with such an amount of w r isdom, 
originality, and wit, and in such flowing language, that one is aston- 
ished at the precocity of even an imaginary child. We select the 
following : 

"That is my chapter, father," said Eliza, when Christopher had 
read the twelfth chapter of the book. "A pious mother, who herself 
teaches her children, seems to me to be the finest sight on earth." 

" It is very different from any that we see in the school-room," said 
Josiah. 

"I did not mean to say that schools are not good," interposed 
Eliza. 

" Nor would I allow myself to think so," added Christopher. 

'• The school-master's instruction will never reach children's hearts 
in the same way as the lessons their parents teach them," said 
Josiah; "and I am sure that in going to school, there is not all the 
good that people fancy there is." 

"I fear, Josiah," said Christopher, "that you are out of your 
sphere. We ought to thank God for all the good there is in the 
world, and as for our schools, we can not be sufficiently thankful 
for them." 

"Well spoken, master," answered Josiah. "It is well that there 
are schools ; and God forbid that I should be ungrateful for any good 
that is done to us. Yet, I think he must be a fool, wdio, having 
plenty at home, runs about begging; and that is the very thing 
which our villagers do, when they forget all the good lessons which 
they might teach their children at home, and send them every day 
to gather up the dry crumbs which are to be found in our miserable 
schools. I am sure that is not quite as it ought to be." 

" Nor is it quite as you have put it," said Christopher. 

"Nay, master," continued Josiah; "only look it in the face, and 
you will see it the same as I do. What parents can teach their chil- 
dren is always what they most need in life; and it is a pity that 
parents should neglect this, by trusting in the words which the school- 
master makes them learn by heart. It is very true, they may be 
good and wise words, and have an excellent meaning to them ; but, 



CHRISTOPHER AND ELIZA. 139 

after all, they arc only words, and, coming from the mouth of a 
stranger, they do not come half as near home as a father's or 
a mother's words." 

" I can not see what you aim at, Josiah," said Christopher. 

"Look, master. The great point in bringing up a child is that 
he should be well trained for his own home. He must learn to know 
and use those things on which his bread and happiness will depend 
through life ; and it seems to me very plain that fathers and mothers 
can teach that much better at home than any school-master can in 
his school. No doubt the school-master tells the children a great 
many things that are right and good ; but they are never worth as 
much from his mouth as from that of an upright father or a pious 
mother. 

" The school-master, for instance, will tell the child to fear God, 
and honor his father and mother, for such is the word of God ; hut 
the child understands little of what he says, and generally forgets it 
before he comes home. But, if at home, his father gives him milk 
and bread, and his mother denies herself a morsel, that she may give 
it to him, the child feels and understands that he ought to honor his 
father and mother, who are so kind to him ; and he will not forget 
his father's words, when he tells him that such is the word of God. 
In the same way, if the child is told at school to be merciful, and to 
love his neighbor as himself, he learns the text by heart, and, per- 
haps, thinks of it for a few days, till the nice words slip from his 
memory. At home, he sees a poor neighbor's wife, calling upon his 
mother, lamenting over her misery, her hunger, and nakedness ; he 
sees her pale countenance, her emaciated and trembling figure — the 
very image of wretchedness ; his heart throbs, his tears now ; he lifts 
up his eyes full of grief and anxiety to his mother, as if he were 
himself starving; he sees his mother bring refreshments for the poor 
sufferer, in whose looks the child now reads comfort and reviving 
hope ; his anguish ceases ; his tears flow no longer ; he approaches 
her with a smiling face; the mother's gift is received with sobs of 
gratitude, which again draw tears to the child's eye. Here he learns 
what it is to be merciful, and love one's neighbor. He learns it with- 
out the aid of words, by the real fact; he sees mercy, instead of 
learning words about mercy." 

To this Christopher replied: "I must own I begin to think that 
too much value is put upon the school-master's teaching." 

"Of course," said Josiah; if you send your sheep up into the 
mountains, you rely upon their being well cared for by the shepherd, 
who is paid for doing it. and you do not think of running after 



140 PESTA I.OZZI. 

them. It is just the same thing with the school, with this difference: 
it is easy to get in pastures better food than can be found in stables , 
but it is not so easy to find a school in which the children are better 
taught than they might be at home. The parents' teaching is the 
kernel of wisdom, and the school-master's business is only to make a 
husk over it, and even then it is a chance if it turns out well." 

"Why, you make one's brain whirl," said Eliza. "I think I see 
now what you are after. I fancy many a poor ignorant mother, who 
now sends her children to school without thinking any thing about it, 
merely because it is the custom to do so, would be very glad to be 
taught better." 

"There is yet another part of the story," said Josiah. " If the 
children must be sent to school, the school-master should be an open- 
hearted, affectionate, and kind man, who would be like a father to 
the children ; a man made to open children's hearts and mouths, and 
draw forth their ideas. In most schools, however, it is just the con- 
trary. The master seems to shut their hearts and mouths, and bury 
their common sense. This is the reason why healthy and cheerful 
children, whose hearts are full of joy and gladness, hardly ever like 
the school ; while stupid dunces, who have no pleasure with other 
children, are the bright ornaments there. If there is a boy among 
them who has too much good sense to keep his eyes for hours fixed 
on a dozen letters which he hates; or a merry girl who, while the 
school-master discourses of spiritual life, plays with her little hands all 
sorts of temporal fun under the desk, the master, in his wisdom, de- 
clares these the goats who care not for their everlasting salvation." 

Thus spoke the good Josiah in the overflowing of his zeal against 
the nonsense of the village schools, and his master and mistress gave 
more anil more attention to what he said. 

After discussing the subject more fully, the father turned to Fritz, 
and said: "Well, Fritz, what have you gathered from this evening's 
conversation ?" 

" That men are foolish to ask alms outside the house, when there 
is abundance within," answered Fritz. 

"What else?" 

"That the country children ought to be educated for the field, the 
barn, the house, and not merely for talk." 

"What more?" asked Christopher. 

"That school knowledge is to many a child like unaccustomed 
food, upon which he will not thrive." 

"Is that all?" said Ins father. 

"That a father's instruction is like the kernel, and the school- 



CHRISTOPHER AND EI,IZA. 141 

master's, at most, like a shell protecting it, and that the common 
people need common sense most." 

" Any thing more?" 

"That the school ought to be an auxiliary to the nursery, where 
father and mother plant the germs of all virtue and all knowledge." 

" It has always appeared to me that cunning is not true wisdom, 
for only honest men can possess that," said Christopher. 

"That is so," said Josiah. "True wisdom proceeds from love, and 
brings blessing and peace to its owner, and to all those who depend 
on him. Cunning proceeds from selfishness and want of love, and 
brings trouble and suffering upon a man who acts under its influence, 
and to those whom he rules or serves. If you are anxious to observe 
the effects of such cunning in a man, go to the poor, whom he uses 
as his tools, and they will tell you how small is his wisdom. < hie 
will tell you that he has to praise his lean ox as a fat one, in order 
to induce some greenhorn to buy ; another has to lure a stranger into 
his net. They will also tell you that they have to speak highly of 
his honor and virtue, even when their hearts bleed from his injustice 
They must cover his sins and deny his cruelty, at least within his 
hearing and knowledge. 

" But he who indulges in such tricks, or incites others to them, 
feels flattered if people talk of his keen understanding, merely be- 
cause he practices his wit day and night in matters with which 
honest people will have nothing to do. On the other hand, he 
shows himself often quite foolish and inexperienced in important 
matters with which honest men are thoroughly familiar. No scoun- 
drel has ever been able to keep that admixture of folly and madness 
which characterizes vice, always under his control, so that it will not 
ooze out when he least expects it." 

" What do you think is the reason that men live so unwisely till 
their last hour comes?" asked Eliza. 

"The neglect of home, without doubt," answered Josiah. "Man 
must have for his heart a hearth, where the fire never goes out ; 
there he must get strength, rest, and refreshment. After leaving his 
home, he goes to Ins work with new courage. Love of mankind is 
not nurtured in the barren regions of a vagabond life ; it requires 
fostering care in the sanctuary of home, as the noblest and tenderest 
plants require the greatest care at the hand of the gardener. But 
when the tender plant of home-grown virtue has taken root, let it 
be transferred to any soil, and it will thrive. If one behaves well 



142 PESTALOZZI. 

us father, mother, son, you may trust him anywhere, although he 
may change his relations ; since the propelling motive of his actions 
will always be the same, whether you call it duty, obedience, or 
tender affection." 

"Heed my words, Fritz," said Eliza, "and do not scoff at any 
thing which is sacred to thy fellow-men, and necessary to their peace 
and welfare; which protects good order in society, and renders the 
last hours of man serene." 

"Yes, my son," added Christopher, "you must fear God, love 
your parents, and honor your superiors, if you would wish to fare 
well on earth." 

" Do so, my dear boy, with an innocent and simple heart," said 
Josiah. "Yet never be afraid to search after truth and to stand by 
it ; to oppose him who uses arbitrary power, and wishes to circum- 
vent you with lies in order to effect wrong. Least of all, do not suffer 
yourself to be blinded by priests, when, under the name of religion, 
you see them only intent on furthering their own interests. When 
they teach you immortality, then listen to them in faith and grati- 
tude, for it is God's word. If you hope to be pious, abhor the man 
who weakens the simple faith of the people in immortality, and ridi- 
cules the word of God in his intercourse with the poor and helpless, 
who are most in want of it. Such a man is like him who despises 
bread and feeds on husks. Oh, flee from the insane one, who 
scotts at that which refreshes and comforts so many thousands of thy 
brethren. The hope of immortality lies deep in the inmost soul, and 
he who teaches it, teaches the word of God." 

[The fact, that, in the chapter which we have quoted from 
" Leonard and Gertrude," relating to the death of the grandmother, 
the dying woman's thoughts were fixed on things of earth rather 
than heaven — the fact that she was more anxious in regard to 
the helpless and motherless children she was leaving than for her 
own future condition, afforded a pretext for a great deal of adverse 
criticism from the religious teachers of the day. 

IVstalozzi was accused of holding materialistic views concerning 
dentil, and of not having true piety and devotion. The zeal with 
which these charges were urged was doubtless intensified by the fact 
that he never tried to conceal his aversion for a religion which con- 
sisted in words and dogmas, and was not accompanied by acts of 
love, fidelity, and sacrifice. In the following extract we have a reply 
to his detractors.] 



CHRISTOPHER AM) ELIZA. 14o 

"The greatest thing that religion can give us is strength for all 
that is good and useful," said Christopher. "Religion ought to give 
me the conviction that on leaving earth I leave nothing, that my 
soul absorbs its cares, and that my hopes reach beyond this temporal 
abode ; but for this very reason it must enable me to use my strength 
for the benefit of my family and my race. 

" Religion does not call men away from the duties of this earth, 
but it gives them strength to the last moment to take care of what 
has been intrusted to them. Did not Christ, when on the cross, 
show his care for his earthly mother by recommending her to the 
care of his favorite disciple? I may be misunderstood, and perhaps 
do not express accurately my idea when I say, that man is not made 
for religion, but religion for man. Religion is an essence which takes 
possession of a man's soul, and leads him away from his own carnal 
tendencies ; it consists rather in powers than in words ; it is a store- 
house full of good instruments, rather than a saloon filled with 
charming ami fascinating images. That which presents itself to men 
as an idol with which to make a constant display, is not religion. 

" The way to heaven is the fulfillment of all our duties on earth ; 
and the neglect of these can only be retrieved to some extent while 
man is well and active, but never on a sick-bed at the approach of 
death. Our forefathers were wiser in this respect than we. One 
proof of this is that they generally disposed of their property while 
still in health. Not only were wife and children remembered, but 
also servants, institutions, the poor, and every thing which the dic- 
tates of humanity, as well as religion, had inspired in their hearts. 
In our days it is not so. Death is allowed to surprise many, and 
they are unable to do what they intended for their family and fellow- 
men. We often hear people say, ' If father or mother had disposed of 
this or the other matter, we should have been spared much care and 
vexation.' It is but a shallow excuse that the departed ones were so 
occupied with spiritual things that worldly ones were forgotten." 

"I have known people," said Christopher, "who, unsolicited, have 
promised to take charge of children soon to become orphans. I have 
also seen this sacred duty neglected. To understand these seeming 
contradictions, Ave must assume that all men have moments in which 
they make good resolutions; but, unless a man is thoroughly firm and 
honest, these good resolutions are transitory as the light of the sun, 
when it rises in the splendor of the morning, while the sky, with the 
exception of a narrow strip along the horizon, is. covered with rain 
clouds. These clouds approach from all sides ; the sunlight is extin- 



144 PESTALOZZI. 

guished ; the whole heavens become gray, and the finer the illumina- 
tion, the more will the rain fall." 

It will be seen that the works of Pestalozzi, which we have men- 
tioned, are mostly of a miscellaneous character, and only incidentally 
treat of education. The only work of a strictly educational character 
which he found time to prepare, is "How Gertrude Teaches her Chil- 
dren." From this we make copious extracts in that part of our work 
which treats of the principles and methods involved in the reform. 

Among his writings are some volumes chiefly devoted to an exposi- 
tion of the character of his school, and to the polemic warfare which 
was carried on at that time. These are of little interest, except as 
giving facts and details of a strictly local character. 

His last works, "The 8ong of a Dying Swan," and "Events of 
my life," which reflected upon all his old associates, must be regarded 
as the production of a man of intense emotional nature, suffering 
keenly from misfortune and failures, which might have been avoided 
had he possessed the power of discerning the causes of these evils. It, 
however, is a consolation to know that Pestalozzi in part recovered 
from his delusion, and repented of his hasty and ill-advised action. 
A short time before his death, he made to Nabholz, one of his most 
trusty and faithful teachers, this important declaration : 

"The work, 'Events of my Life,' was written in a state of mind 
bordering on insanity, and therefore it was impossible for me to take 
a correct view of things. By circumstances and the influence of those 
around me, I was compelled to make assertions, which, upon calm 
consideration, I find myself obliged to retract as opinions not my own, 
but forced upon me against my convictions. This is particularly ap- 
plicable to those passages in which I reject, as untenable and not 
founded on my own views, the method formerly established and pub- 
licly advocated by me. I intend to avail myself of the first oppor- 
tunity to make a public declaration to this effect; but if I should die 
before having done so, I beg you to do it in my name, and expressly 
stale that I have commissioned you to do so." 

We lay greater stress upon this declaration from the fact that some 
reviewers have quoted largely from these works as showing that Pes- 
talozzi himself repudiated the principles upon which his school was 
founded. From these facts the reader can readily determine how 
much consideration should be given to the works in question — works 
which Pestalozzi himself declared were the effects of the lowering 
clouds which were spread around the horizon behind which the sun 
of his life was about to set. 



ADDRESSES. 145 

His Christmas and New-year's addresses contain much of his char- 
acteristic fervor of style and exuberance of fancy. We select the 
following from one of these addresses, some passages of which seem 
to give a pleasant farewell to the scene of his labors. We have 
slightly condensed some portions of it, otherwise it remains un- 
changed: 

" You, my little children, whom we love almost as Jacob did his 
Benjamin and Joseph, what shall I wish for you? Live in innocence 
and love ; maintain your cheerfulness ; live happily in nature's arm-, 
and keep your eyes open to her impressions ; imbibe her charms in 
full draughts, whether they are fluttering in the shape of a butterfly 
over your head, or lying before you, a brilliant stone, or growing, a 
lovely flower. When you have found one of these treasures and feel 
happy, oh then think of your father and mother, who, perhaps, weep 
secret tears, because they can no more witness your happy smile. In 
thinking of them, a tear will, perhaps, fall from your eyes, because 
you are now deprived of the happiness of looking into their faces. 
With a thankful heart, wish them a good year, and pray to your 
Father in Heaven, who is also the Father of your parents, to bless 
them, and make you good and pious for their future jov and conso- 
lation. 

"And you, older children, what shall the new year be to you? 
Von are more conscious of the meaning of life than these little ones; 
you begin to feel its purposes and duties; you begin to understand the 
mighty words, ' whatsoever a man sows, that shall he reap ; ' you do 
not merely see nature's form, but begin to see God in nature. Chil- 
dren, we have found much in you that is pure and noble. We have 
been satisfied with you, and are confident that your exertions have 
not been in vain. As the growing fruit smiles upon the gardener from 
the tree, so does the fruit of your labors appear in your contented 
faces. We can read it in your animated look ; we perceive it in the 
blooming appearance of your cheeks ; we hear it in your sensible re- 
marks. But, my children, lovely ones, appearance is deceptive and 
passes away; it is only the soul that lasts. Seek perfection in what 
is eternal and imperishable. Children, the world is evil, and our 
house is a little world. Fear Cod. and beware of all wicked doings- 
Be children of God in love,' fear, obedience, and gratitude." 

'• Daughters of my house, I do not exhort you to show grace and 
loveliness, since nature has supplied your sex with these; but this 1 
entreat you, show pow'er in your grace. () my daughters, think not 
too much of yourselves, and distrust somewhat the opinions which 
others profess to have of you. Have faith first in God, in order that 
P. 10. 



146 PESTALOZZI. 

you may believe in yourselves, and that you may educate others in 
that faith. The world needs educators. If mothers do not care for 
the moral weal of their children, what will become of them? Lend 
us your aid in the attainment of an improved domestic education, in 
order that you may become fit instruments of God, a blessing to your- 
selves and to the circle in which you live." 

We pass over the equally impressive addresses to the young men 
and teachers of his house, to his oldest associates and to his faithful 
wife, and content ourselves with quoting his general remarks addressed 
to the whole assembly. 

"When I close my eyes, my last words to you will be these: Do 
not deceive yourselves about the height of the mountain you have to 
ascend; it is much higher than you suppose. On reaching one alti- 
tude you stand at the foot of others ; yet, if you pause, you will lose 
your strength and be disabled for climbing farther. 

"Whosoever among you is strong, oh, let him help the weak; but 
whosoever is weak, let him not despair, for God is powerful to the 
weak. He does not regard strength : he regards the will. If this 
were not true, I should not stand before you, nor would our work 
exist. But what is our work ? 

"Like a river falling from the mountains, our work takes often an 
arbitrary direction: we at its source, sometimes hardly know whither 
its current tends. If the work of man, it stands still before the ob- 
stacles of opposing rocks ; but if the work of God, it pierces triumph- 
antly the stony masses, and appears again with waters purified by 
the struggle. But, my beloved friends, the stream is not ours: ours 
are but the drops falling from the cliffs. That these drops are not 
dried up, that they are able to pierce the clefts, and reach that depth 
where God's waters roll in majestic power, is God's work. May this 
new year behold us floating peacefully on the gentle waves toward 
our great aim. When I cast my eyes on the circle around me, what 
duties do I feel imposed upon me! O Father, Thou hast placed me 
on a mountain which I did not ascend myself. Thou hast assigned 
to me a place which I am not worthy to occupy. As a steward man- 
ages the house of his employer, so will I work for my Master during 
the remainder of my life. O my beloved ones, live in harmony and 
love. Under your protecting shelter let me take my last tottering 
steps to that rest for which I long; for my soul is weary, my body 
craves slumber, and my head the pillow from which it will rise no 
more. Amen." 

We will close this part of our work by quoting from the address 



ADDRESSES. 147 

which he made at the inauguration of the Poor School, that was 
founded with the money raised by subscription to his works : 

"This solemn day, in which I arrange and settle my worldly 
affairs before passing through the valley of death to the regions of 
life and resurrection ; this day, when I intend to erect a monument 
to the glory of God for purposes of love and faith, I come before 
you and pray : Oh, do not regard me in the nothingness of human 
weakness, as a crushed reed or a feeble glimmering wick, but receive 
my words as if spoken after my resurrection from the grave. 

But I tremble; dare I pro- 
nounce such words, unless I have seen the face of the Lord ! Oh, no ! 
My address to you bears the impress of the flesh and of human 
nature, which, though full of good-will, is ever wandering through 
labyrinths of wrong and error ; yet, I pray you, listen with attention 
and confidence to my words. Accept them as the words of your 
father, who is approaching the grave, and who has deeply felt the 
misery of the poor, especially of that portion which can be relieved 
by the blessings of education. Alas ! it is only near the end of my 
life that I am enabled to give a mite for this purpose, and to leave 
its execution as a legacy to you. Let my care for the sanctity of 
education devolve on you. May you be- filled by the thought of a 
better future, which is to bless coming generations ; be witness of the 
spirit which animated my youth, and which continues to gloAv even 
in my old age. Let every harsh and unkind feeling be banished 
from your hearts, through the power of faith and love. Let no one 
say : Christ does not love him who has done wrong. He loves him 
with divine love. He died for him. He did not find the sinner faith- 
ful, but he made him so by his own faith ; he did not find him hum- 
ble, but he made him so by his own humility. Friends, if we love one 
another as Christ loved us, we shall conquer all difficulties, and found 
our house on the eternal rock on which, through Jesus Christ, God 
has placed the welfare of the human race." 



r - 



FART IV. 



PRINCIPLES AND METHOD 



OF PESTALOZZI. 



CHAPTER I. 

GENERAL VIEW OF THE PESTALOZZIAN METHOD. 

TO state clearly the principal features of the method of Pestalozzi 
is no easy task. The difficulties encountered arise, in part, from 
the scientific nature of the subject, and, in part, from the complicated 
character which the work has assumed at the present day. The crit- 
icism of an educational method is very different from that of a phil- 
osophical system ; since the latter has a stereotyped outline, given it 
by the words of the book, while the former is a living organism, 
with all the features which the spirit of the times and the experience 
of half a century have impressed upon it. Under these circum- 
stances, the first duty is to state the original intention or plan of its 
founder and the results of his initial experiments. 

The work, " How Gertrude Teaches Her Children," in which Pes- 
talozzi embodies his own ideas of education, will supply the principal 
quotations of this chapter. The reader, from the character and pecul- 
iarities of Pestalozzi, will not expect to find in this work a mature 
system, expressed in concise, elegant, and symmetrical language ; but 
rather the effusions of a thinking philanthropist deeply absorbed in 
his experiments, and " bearing within himself an -unborn universe," 
of whose untrodden shores he tries to give an intelligent account. 
When he looked at the moral, intellectual, and l'eligious condition of 
the people of Europe, and at their means of instruction, he found a 
state of things which he not inaptly describes in the following 
simile : 

"As far as I am acquainted Avith popular instruction, it appears to 
me like a large house, whose uppermost story shines in the splendor 
of highly finished art, but is occupied by only a few. In the middle 
story is a great crowd, but the stairs by which the upper one may be 
reached in an approved and respectable manner are wanting; if the 
attempt be made in a less regular way, the leg or arm used as a 
means of progress may be broken. In the lowest story Is an im- 
mense throng ol people, who have precisely the same right to enjoy 

(151) 



152 PESTALOZZI. 

the light of the sun as those in the upper one ; hut they are left in 
utter darkness, and not even allowed to gaze at the magnificence 
above. ............ 

"Europe, on the one hand, stands higher than any other part of 
the world; but, on the other, no land has descended to lower depths. 
Like the image described by the prophet, it reaches to the sky with its 
golden head of arts and sciences; but its foundation, which should be 
popular instruction, like the feet of the same image, is but miry clay." 

Pestalozzi, in his holy indignation, rejected as an empty mockery, 
the superficial book-knowledge which, up to that time, the most 
enlightened had made the basis of education. He says: "A man 
who has only word-wisdom is less susceptible to truth than a savage. 
This use of mere words produces men who believe they have reached 
the goal, because their whole life has been spent in talking about 
it, but who never ran toward it, because no motive impelled them 
to make the effort ; hence, I come to the conviction that the fun- 
damental error — the blind use of words in matters of instruction — 
must be extirpated before it is possible to resuscitate life and 
truth." 

With these views of the state of education, is it strange that Pesta- 
lozzi should have earnestly sought a remedy for these evils, and 
should have endeavored — to use his own expression — "to wheel the 
educational car of Europe upon another track " ? And where could 
this track be found except where the foot-prints of the Creator are 
clearly seen in the light of eternal laws and principles. 

With an impetuosity characteristic of his strong feelings, he makes 
frequent appeals to mothers, the natural teachers of childhood, — ap- 
peals not unmixed with indignation against those who sneer at his 
faith in human nature and the sanctity of home. He says: "It is 
the main design of my method to make home instruction again possi- 
ble to our neglected people, and to induce every mother whose heart 
beats for her child, to make use of my elementary exercises. To do 
this, she must be in advance of the child. My heart is lifted up by 
the blessed hopes which spring from this idea. When I first ex- 
pressed these hopes, I was answered from all sides, 'The mothers will 
not approve.' Not only uneducated men, but those who teach — who 
teach Christianity — said to me scoffingly : 'You may search all our 
villages through, but you will find no mother who will do what you 
require of her.' To this I answered : ' Then I will, by these means, 
enable heathen mothers from the farthest north to do it. 

If these men dare wash their 
hands of the blame, and say, 'We are guiltless of this inexpressible 



GENERAL VIEW OF THE PESTALOZZIAN METHOD. 153 

shame of the people in peaceful Europe ; we are guiltless of this un- 
speakable disgrace of the best-natured, most teachable, and patient 
of all European nations, the Swiss ; we and our fathers have done 
what it was our duty to do, to prevent this decay of the first founda- 
tions of morality in our father-land, ' — then will I advise them to cry 
out to these unnatural mothers, in the spirit of Christ's appeal to Je- 
rusalem, Mothers, mothers ! how often have we wished to gather you 
under the shelter of wisdom, humanity, and Christianity, as a hen 
gathers her chickens under her wings, and ye would not ! If these 
men dare not make this assertion, then will I not believe in them, 
but in the mothers, and in the hearts which God has given them; 
and I will go my way like a wanderer, who, in a distant forest, hears 
a wind whose breath he does not feel." 

We quote the above passage in full to show a peculiarity often 
ol (served among enthusiasts, that, while they may be entirely right 
in regard to a principle, they often mistake the order of time and 
nature in the realization of their aspirations. That the child begins 
to learn with his birth, and that the mother is his natural educator, 
do not admit of a doubt ; but it must also be conceded, that for an 
intelligent and effective system of education, the mother, as well as 
the teacher, must be trained for her special work. The rightly edu- 
cated child is the coming father and mother. 

At a time when home education is in danger of being more and 
more disregarded, when but little moral instruction or firmness is ex- 
hibited to counteract the increased inducements to excesses of all 
kinds, it seems but an act of justice to vindicate Pestalozzi from the 
accusation of striving to cultivate the intellectual faculties only, and 
to show that he based the success of his method, and even of moral 
and religious life, upon the firm rock of sound domestic education. 

We wish also to say a word in regard to the spirit in which the 
writings of Pestalozzi should be interpreted. Learned scholars, who 
at first were disposed to question the ability and reprove the bold- 
ness of a partially educated man who dared to enter upon abstruse 
philosophical discussions, have been disarmed and partly converted 
by the nobility of the thoughts uttered, and the real humility of the 
man who expressed them. The magnitude of the work, and the 
terrible need of the suffering poor, were the motives which urged 
him to write. Though often crude in expression, his writings all 
contain precious germs of thought: 

" What I desired, and still desire, is not to teach the world any 
new art or science, for I know none; but to make it more easy for 
the people to master the beginnings of all arts and sciences; to 



154 PESTALOZZL 

develop the powers of the poor and weak, who are now neglected and 
given up to desolation ; to open the avenues of learning, which are 
the approaches to humanity ; and, if possible, to burn down the bar- 
riers which keep the more lowly of the citizens of Europe far behind 
the barbarians of the North and South in independent intellectual 
power, which is the basis of all efficient acquirement. They are kept 
so, because, notwithstanding our empty boasting of universal enlight- 
enment, nine men in ten are deprived of the right of all men, the 
right of instruction ; or, at least, the possibility of using it. May 
these barriers, after my death, burn with a bright flame ! I know 
that I am only a feeble coal lying in wet straw ; but I hear a wind 
not far off, which shall fan the coal to a blaze. The wet straw 
around me will gradually dry, grow warm, kindle, and at last burn. 
Yes, however wet it is around me, it will burn, it will burn! 

"The highest attainments can only be reached by means of a 
finished art of teaching, and the most perfect psychology ; thus secur- 
ing the utmost perfection in the mechanism of the natural progression 
from confused impressions to intelligent ideas. This is in truth far 
beyond my powers. 

"The Egyptian who first fastened a shovel with a crooked handle 
to the horn of an ox, and thus taught him to perform the labor of 
a man, prepared the way for the invention of the plow, although he 
did not bring it to perfection. My services are only the first bending 
of the shovel handle, and the fastening of it to a new horn. But 
why do I speak in similes? I ought to state my meaning plainly, 
and will do so. 

"I desire to remove the imperfections from common school instruc- 
tion ; to knit it to the immovable power of nature herself, to the 
light which God kindles and ever maintains in the hearts of fathers 
and mothers, and to the desires of parents that their children may be 
respectable before God and man." 

In the following extracts Pestalozzi sets forth, with great power 
and earnestness, the faults and short-comings of the school systems 
prevalent in his day. It will be seen that in this, as in all his work, 
he is moved by a profound indignation against the unnatural and 
u n philosophical processes pursued. 

"Children are left till their fifth year in the full enjoyment of 
nature. They are allowed to imbibe its cheerful influence through 
every pore. After having thus tasted this bliss of sensuous life, the 
fair scene of their pleasures at once vanishes from their eyes. They 
are thrown into badly ventilated rooms; they are doomed for hours, 
days, and years to the contemplation of dry, monotonous letters. 



GENERAL VIEW OF THE PESTALOZZIAN METHOD. 155 

Friend, tell me, can the blow of the executioner, which transfers 
the criminal from life to death, have a greater influence on the body 
than such a transition from the pleasant teachings of nature to the 
miserable discipline of our schools ? Will men remain blind forever ? 
Will they never look to those primitive sources from which the con- 
fusion of minds, the destruction of innocence, the ruin of strength, 
and all the consequences thereof arise, and which doom many of us 
to an unsatisfactory existence, and thousands of others to a premature 
death, or to the abode of the raving maniac?" 

The remedy for the evils so vividly pointed out is found in a sys- 
tem of education which recognizes as its object the development of 
the faculties of the mind in the order of their growth and use, and 
the adaptation of instruction to this particular end. 

Pestalozzi says: "My experiments led me to trace the various 
branches of instruction to their very elements. I endeavored to find 
out the exact time of life when instruction should begin, and I soon 
arrived at the conviction that it is the hour of birth. The first tutor 
is nature, and her tuition begins from the moment that the child's 
senses are opened to the impressions of the surrounding world. The 
feeling of novelty with which life surprises the infant, is in itself 
nothing but the unfolding of the capability of receiving these impres- 
sions. It is the arousing of the germs of mental power. The animal 
is entirely formed, and something above the animal is awakened, 
which, while it clearly testifies to the destination of the new-born 
being, gives him, at the same time, a positive impulse toward the 
attainment of that purpose. 

" Whatever, therefore, man may attempt to do by his tuition, he 
can do no more than assist in the effort which the child makes for 
his own development. To do this so that the impressions made 
upon him may always be commensurate to the growth and character 
of the faculties already unfolded, and, at the same time, in harmony 
with them, is the great secret of education. 

"The knowledge to which the child is to be led by instruction, 
must, therefore, necessarily be subjected to a certain order of succes- 
sion, the beginning of which must be adapted to the first unfolding 
of his powers, and the progress kept exactly parallel to that of his 
development. 

"I soon perceived that the simplest and only way to impart in- 
struction, or to frame really instructive school-books, is to discover 
this order throughout the range of human knowledge, and especially 
in all those essentials in which the human mind takes its beginning. 
I saw clearly that the child may be brought to a hijjh degree of 



156 PESTALOZZI. 

knowledge, botli of things and language, before it would be rational 
to teach him reading or spelling. Seeing this, I felt the necessity of 
presenting things to children, from earliest infancy, in a manner cal- 
culated to draw forth the action of their different faculties." 

Thus far no philosopher would object to Pestalozzi's conclusions 
and statements. Their very enunciation seems to command assent; 
and yet, in practice, they are generally ignored or violated. The 
necessity of obtaining knowledge through experience, that proper 
mental development may be secured, is stated in the following : 

" Instruction without the assistance of art does no more for us 
than nature herself; and the only advantage we derive from art is, 
that it accelerates the progress of nature, thus enabling the individ- 
ual to keep pace with civilization. Nature, in her advance toward 
development, invariably follows the important law, that the degree 
of clearness of our knowledge depends on the greater or less distance 
of the objects which we perceive. Every thing in the surrounding 
world appears confused in proportion as it is distant from us ; what- 
ever, on the contrary, is near, appears more distinct. As far as I 
am an inhabitant of this world, my five senses are myself; and 
therefore the clearness or obscurity of my ideas must depend on the 
distance from which each impression reaches these senses. I my- 
self, as the center of all my perceptions, become the object of my 
perceptive faculties. Whatever I am in myself, I can feel and un- 
derstand better than what is outside of myself; for the former are 
always clear and distinct, while the latter are often confused: con- 
sequently, the course of my knowledge concerning myself is one step 
shorter than that which I acquire concerning other objects. What- 
ever I know concerning myself is a matter of distinct consciousness; 
moreover, what I truly know is part of myself, as it is included 
in the knowledge I have of myself: hence it follows, that I am the 
point from which I must set out for the acquisition of clear and dis- 
tinct ideas. Of all things, nothing can be clearer than the principle 
that all man's knowledge of truth is founded upon his knowledge of 
himself." 

jS'ext, we have the account of the process by which Pestalozzi ar- 
rived at his conclusions concerning the classification of the sciences 
in their relation to the work of primary instruction. "It occurred 
to me upon one occasion to concentrate my attention upon the man- 
ner in which a man, whose mind is already cultivated, must proceed 
in order to analyze properly and to comprehend the objects that come 
before him in confusion. The result of my inquiry is, that the 
attention must be directed to the following points : 



GENEKAL VIEW OF THE PESTAEOZZIAN METHOD. 157 

"First. — How many objects and how many kinds lias he before 
him ? 

" Second— -What is their appearance, their shape, their outline? 

" Third. — What are their names? In what manner may each be 
represented by a sound or word ? 

"To succeed in this examination he must have the power — 

"First. — To view dissimilar objects in regard to their shape, and 
to form an idea of what is contained in each. 

"Second. — To distinguish these objects either in the plurality in 
which they exist, or in the unity which is given to them in the 
mind. 

"Third. — To designate, as early as possible, by corresponding 
names, all the objects which have thus come to their knowledge. 

"Hence, I concluded that Form, Number, and Language, when 
brought into connection with each other, are the elements of instruc- 
tion; inasmuch as the external properties of objects are contained 
within the sphere of their outline and numerical proportions, and are 
brought distinctly to our consciousness by language. It is, therefore, 
a fundamental law that all instruction is founded on this threefold 
basis. 

" It follows that the object of our first instruction must be to de- 
velop, in a manner most conformable to nature, the subjects Form, 
Number, and Language ; for a healthy cultivation of the faculties 
requires that the means by which they are developed should be 
brought to the utmost simplicity and to perfect harmony with each 
other. 

"The only doubt that occurred to my mind after I had made this 
discovery was, how is it that the other properties of things of which 
our five senses apprise us do not ('(institute elementary ideas of knowl- 
edge as well as these three, number, form, and name? I soon found 
that these belong universally to all objects, whereas other properties 
are not common to all, but vary, and hence can not be considered 
fundamental points of knowledge." 

From further details given in this connection, it appears that Pes- 
talozzi assigned to Form the subjects Drawing, Writing, and Geom- 
etry; to Number, Arithmetic in all it departments; and to Lan- 
guage, Speaking, Reading, Singing, and all the possible exercises of 
the organs <>f speech by which sound is produced. Educators will 
generally concede the correctness of these deductions. 

In his next step, however, Pestalozzi has committed grave errors. 
One of these consists in placing under Language, besides the branches 
named above, Geography, History, and Natural Science. He does 



158 PESTALOZZI. 

this because these subjects are presented through the medium of Lan- 
guage. By the same process of reasoning, Form, Number, and 
every possible department of thought might be placed under the 
same head. 

Another error is, to consider the name a property of objects; 
since it is evident that objects exist before they are named, and that 
it is possible to form an idea of them without knowing the word by 
which the idea is to be expressed. 

Again, Pestalozzi assigns as a reason for his threefold basis for 
instruction, that each of these properties belongs to all objects ; but 
it is not quite clear why he should not have assigned an equally 
important place to color, weight, etc. , which also belong to all 
objects; or in what part of his classification these qualities would 
have found their natural place. 



CHAPTER II. 

conformity of pestalozzfs method to the natural 
order of human development. 

THE future reviewer, in considering the system of Pestalozzi from 
his own stand-point, both in regard to science and the human 
mind, will have, on account of his broader view and calmer investi- 
gation, an advantage over Pestalozzi or any of the writers of the 
present era. He will have no jDartisan prejudices from having actu- 
ally engaged in the strife, and will be guided by the light which 
comes from a long series of careful and critical experiments and in- 
vestigations. 

The limits of this work forbid an attempt at this thorough review. 
Even had we inclination for such a task, the time is not yet come 
when it could be successfully accomplished. The experiments are 
still going on. The conflict between the old and the new is still rag- 
ing ; and, though substantial progress has been made, final results are 
not yet reached. From these considerations, we shall content our- 
selves with giving a general view of the subject, with sufficient appli- 
cation in detail to illustrate and exemplify the points examined. 

To present Pestalozzi's idea of the aims and office of education, we 
again quote from one of his last writings: 

"Sound education stands before me symbolized by a tree planted 
near fertilizing waters. A little seed, which contains the design of 
the tree, its form and proportions, is placed in the soil. See how it 
germinates and expands into trunk, branches, leaves, flowers, and 
fruit! The whole tree is an uninterrupted chain of organic parts, 
the plan of which existed in its seed and root. Man is similar to the 
tree. In the new r -born child are hidden those faculties, which are to 
unfold during life. The individual and separate organs of his being 
form themselves gradually into unison, and build up humanity in the 
image of God. 

"The growth of man is God's work, and the result of universal 
laws conferred on his nature. • 

"The education of man is a purely moral result. It is not the 

(159) 



1(30 PESTALOZZI. 

educator who puts new powers and faculties into man, and imparts to 
him breath and life. He only takes care that no untoward influence 
shall disturb nature's inarch of development. The moral, intellectual, 
and executive powers of man must be nurtured within himself, and 
not from artificial substitutes. Thus, faith must be cultivated by our 
own act of believing, not by reasoning about faith ; love, by our own 
act of loving, not by fine words about love; thought, by our own 
act of thinking, not by merely appropriating the thoughts of other 
men ; and knowledge, by our own investigation, not by endless talk 
about the results of art arid science." 

From this extract, as well as from the general spirit and tendency 
of Pestalozzi's work, we think that the one great fundamental princi- 
ple which forms the basis of his system is the natural, progressive, and 
symmetrical development of all the poivers and faculties of the human being. 

Many truths, closely related to this fundamental principle, can in 
nowise be considered as discoveries of Pestalozzi. Some of them 
may be more ancient than the oldest of human records; some have 
been distinctly enunciated by Socrates, Plato, and others; and some 
have been given to the world by the profound thinkers of the Chris- 
tian era — by those who have lived since the emancipation of the 
sciences and of the human mind from the thralldom of ancient sophis- 
try, book learning, and the rule of political and ecclesiastical despot- 
ism. They should be kept constantly before the mind, to counteract 
the tendency of instruction to fall into thoughtless routine. 

These truths are of a twofold nature: first, subjective, considering 
the mental processes themselves ; second, objective, referring to the 
facts of science as a means of growth. Their value does not depend 
upon the fact that they can be traced to the words of some master; 
but, rather, that they correspond to the consciousness of the human 
mind and to the facts of human experience. The subjective truths 
may be stated as follows: 

All human growth and power spring from inborn capabilities. 
Development, or the unfolding of human power, comes from the ac- 
quisition of knowledge; and, to produce this development, the ele- 
ments of knowledge must be brought into contact with the faculties 
of the mind. 

The individuality of every human being is determined at birth, as 
certainly as the character of the plant is marked out in the seed ; 
and in all educational processes this individuality should be respected. 

As the secretion, distribution, and assimilation of chemical elements 
from the great laboratory of nature, is the parent of all organic 
growth, so is experience the mother of all wisdom; and the process 



HIS METHOD. 161 

of acquiring it should be so regulated that the successive steps follow 
each other in the exact order of dependence. Education is thus 
analagous to the development of organic life, where each step in 
growth depends on the completeness of the preceding one. Hence, 
the true work of education must be a work of art, — symmetrical, 
progressive, based upon natural laws, and applied to the faculties of 
the mind-. 

Faculties of the Mind. — In our farther examination of the 
method employed for mental development, we shall consider the 
mind as a unit, manifesting itself in different directions and for 
different purposes. To each of these distinct manifestations we 
shall give the general name faculty. In speaking of these faculties, 
Ave shall accept the name and classification in most general use. 

Knowledge comes to us from without and from within — through 
our senses and through our consciousness. The faculty which takes 
cognizance of the former, we call Perception ; and of the latter, 
Reflection. The faculty which retains knowledge, we term Memory ; 
and this includes not only the power of retaining ideas, but also of 
recalling them. That faculty which enables us to recombine facts 
which come to us through sensation or consciousness, we term Im- 
agination. That faculty which guides imagination to proper results, 
which traces cause and effect, which places all knowledge in the order 
of dependence, and which discovers relations between different pro- 
cesses of thought, we denominate Reason. 

Perception. — The perceptive faculty is the first one aroused into 
activity. The sensations received by the child are so numerous and 
varied that curiosity is stimulated; "which indicates," says Pesta- 
lozzi, "that a desire is created to change dim perceptions into those 
which are clear and complete." Children manifest this curiosity by 
the ceaseless activity of body and mind, and by never-ending ques- 
tions. These manifestations, which clearly indicate nature's provision 
for obtaining knowledge, are the very ones which are restrained, re- 
pressed, and, as far as possible, prohibited in many of our schools. 

The mere sight of an object does not satisfy a child. He must 
handle it. weigh it, smell it, taste it, and examine it in all its parts, 
in order to gain a complete idea of it. In addition to this, he engages 
in playing, running, shouting, and laughing, each of which is an ex- 
pression of a feeling, and an indication of the healthful condition of 
both body and mind. He turns from one sport to another with 
celerity ; which shows that variety of impression and rapidity of ac- 
quirement are not only possible, but are demanded with an urgency 
that can not be resisted with impunity. 
P. 11. 



162 PESTALOZZI. 

A feature not to be overlooked in the sports of childhood is the 
intensity of the attention bestowed upon objects. It is often said 
that children will take in the contents of a whole scene at a single 
glance, including details which an adult might not have noticed. 
This is but partially true. The eye can only take cognizance of that 
which is directly in the range of its axis, and it obtains a knowledge 
of adjoining objects only by changing this. The quickness with 
which this change can be effected, and with which a knowledge of ;i 
large object or scene may be obtained, shows the rapidity with which 
the mind acts when it is aroused. The earnestness of attention 
which a child bestows upon any thing which he sees for the first 
time shows that he obtains ideas before he has words to express 
them. 

When children arrive at school age, three ways are presented by 
which their education may be conducted. 

First. — To give names to letters, figures, and other symbols, fol- 
lowed by definitions, rules, and a limited number of facts, most of 
which have no relation to those already known to the child. The 
whole process deals in ideas which have not come within the child's 
experience, and, consequently, are not his own. They are clothed in 
words not in common use, the meaning of which is frequently en- 
tirely unknown. 

Second. — To allow children to continue for a time in school the 
plays which they have learned at home, thus giving vent to their 
natural activity; but gradually mingling pleasant instruction with 
the play, training their hands to make beautiful objects, and leading 
them to the full, free exercise of their inventive faculties. 

Third. — To place objects before them in which they are interested, 
and which tend to cultivate their perceptive faculties ; and, at the 
same time, lead them to name the object, to describe its parts, and 
to state the relation of these parts. Thus language also is cultivated ; 
and, from the observation of a single object, the pupil is led to com- 
pare it with others, and the first steps in classification are taken. 

The first of these methods may be styled the old method; or, since 
it is largely practiced now, the usual method. It is the result of 
habit, thoughtlessness, or ignorance, and can not, for a moment, stand 
the test of philosophical criticism. 

The second of these methods is known as the Kindergarten system. 
This word literally signifies children's garden, but means a pleasant 
place where children are educated. The Kindergarten system was 
originated, after the time of Pestalozzi, by Frobel, an eminent Ger- 
man educator, and is rather supplementary than antagonistic to Pes- 



HIS METHOD. 163 

talozzi's work. Fnibel takes children at a very early age, and pro- 
poses to systematize their plays, train their activities, and, in some 
measure, arrange their ideas in an orderly manner before the com- 
mencement of school life. Pestalozzi assigned the same work to the 
mother, as a part of necessary home education, without, however, 
considering her want of culture, means, or time for its accomplish- 
ment. 

The third is the method which has more directly grown out of 
Pestalozzi's work, and has given rise to what are known as Object 
Lessons. These lessons are designed specially to cultivate the per- 
ceptive faculty; and hence, in any true system of education, they 
must be considered as fundamental — not only in their relation to the 
faculties, but as giving the first ideas, or laying the foundation of all 
branches of knowledge. Object Lessons in form lead directly to 
Drawing, Writing, and Geometry ; in sound and form, to Language, 
including Reading, Speaking, and Spelling; in place, to Geography; 
and in animals, plants, minerals, etc., to Natural History. Every 
branch of science has its primary course, the first ideas of which can 
best be derived from objects, which are viewed from all sides and in 
all relations accessible to perception, so that distinct ideas may be 
formed both for present use and as the basis of future work. 

The examination of natural objects, such as minerals, plants, shells, 
and animals, not only serves to awaken the observation, but also 
affords a glimpse of the laws of beauty and symmetry manifest in all 
God's works, and awakens a love for the study of nature in all her 
forms. The interest thus excited will often lead to the collection of 
specimens, which, in their turn, stimulate to farther investigations — 
a result very different from that which follows when the study is 
commenced with definitions and scientific classification. 

The term "Object Lesson," or "Object Teaching," has obtained a 
signification far too narroAV to express the full meaning of the process 
of instruction which is based on experience. Objects can not always 
be procured, and they are by no means indispensable. A model or 
picture may sometimes be used instead, but the method of procedure 
is the same in either case. 

Again, in many instances objects are merely used as means to de- 
velop an idea. We say three apples, four pebbles, two beans; yet 
neither the apples, pebbles, nor beans are essential to the conception 
of the numbers three, four, and two. In the higher branches, 
as moral and intellectual philosophy, ideas forming a part of our 
experience are the objects which, as the name implies, are placed, 
or thrown up, before us for special consideration. 



164 PESTALOZZI. 

This method commences with an examination of objects and facts, 
then institutes comparisons by which resemblances, differences, and 
relations are observed; and with the results so obtained, repeats the 
process until the remotest relations are known and the highest gener- 
alizations reached. This process may, with propriety, be called the 
Objective Method or Objective Teaching. 

Objective Teaching, in this enlarged sense, includes Object Lessons, 
and a great deal more. It comprehends the unfolding of the facul- 
ties in the order of their growth and use, and the presentation of the 
several branches of instruction in their natural order. Its great aims 
are mental growth and the acquisition of knowledge. 

Memory. — This faculty includes those powers of the mind, which 
enable us to store up knowledge, and recall it for use. That which 
makes the strongest impression, not only remains longest with us, but 
is most easily recalled ; therefore, those educational processes which 
conduce to this end are most desirable. Strong and deep impressions 
are made whenever ideas are connected or associated by similarities, 
contrasts, cause and effect, time, place, or other relations. 

Again, the impressions are much stronger when made upon more 
than one sense ; or, rather, when those made upon one sense are cor- 
roborated and enforced by those made upon another. For example, 
if an object, interesting to children, is presented to them, its parts 
and relations discovered and pointed out, and the whole impressed by 
the use of familiar language on the part of both teacher and pupil, 
the ideas gained will only need to be occasionally recalled to become 
enduring. On the contrary, a lesson read or repeated in language 
not thoroughly understood, will make an impression so weak that it 
will speedily be effaced. The objective method of education continu- 
ally stimulates the power of association, while the old system appeals 
mainly to verbal memory. 

Morell, in his Inductive Philosophy, says: "The power of mem- 
ory may be represented by a spider's web, which sends out its thread 
in all directions, establishing connection with every part and with the 
central point of the whole. When the mind has woven such a web 
around an object, it can pass along the threads at pleasure to any 
given point." 

This view of memory is important, since it shows that only by 
association can we fix any truth indelibly on the mind of the pupil, 
and enable him to recall it at will. Hence, the teacher questions and 
cross-questions to see that the fact he desires to impress does not lie 
as an isolated idea in the mind; if it does, he endeavors, by numer- 
ous ties, to bind it to other ideas, so as to multiply the bridges by 



HIS METHOD. 165 

which the mind can return to it at any future time. Therefore, the 
cultivation of memory does not merely imply the exercise of a single 
faculty, but aho (lie order and connection of our idem. 

The objective method of teaching not only makes use of existing 
associations, but creates new ones. In Arithmetic, for instance, if the 
fact that three times four is twelve is associated with three groups, 
each containing four objects, the result can always be recollected in 
the same manner as originally found, even if the sentence which ex- 
pressed the process has faded from the memory. Again, if, in Geog- 
raphy, the ideas of a mountain and a river and the relations between 
them are fully developed, the ideas of falling water, of mills, manu- 
factories, and thriving cities, can be established and associated, so 
that they can always be remembered and easily recalled. 

In a majority of the schools of the present day very little attention 
is paid to the systematic development of associated memory. Discon- 
nected and imperfect ideas are presented, and, in many cases, words 
which convey no meaning are given. The vitality is exhausted in a 
vain effort to make arbitrary memory do the work of natural associa- 
tion. The strain which an effort to memorize isolated facts and dis- 
connected and unmeaning sentences produces, has a tendency to par- 
alyze the whole mind, and to produce a dislike for all mental work. 
The brilliant feats of word-memory, so often witnessed at examina- 
tions and exhibitions, can only deceive those who are not able to dis- 
tinguish appearance from reality, shadow from substance. 

In those schools where the pupils are made to rely mainly upon 
verbal memory, there will be found generally the least originality, 
the least invention, and the least amount of true, vigorous, mental 
discipline ; while conceit and deception are engendered and honest 
efforts discouraged. 

Imagination. — The power of creating new forms and combinations 
out of the elements which nature furnishes, the faculty which never 
lets the mind rest content with mere perception, but is constantly 
urging it to new activities, is the imagination. Its work is demanded 
in every department of human thought and action ; and, therefore, 
this faculty should be carefully and thoroughly trained. Its impor- 
tance in educational work is generally overlooked ; partly, from a mis- 
understanding in regard to the faculty itself, and partly from a lack 
of system in the treatment of all the faculties. 

Imagination is usually regarded as synonomous with fancy — very 
pleasant to amuse, but of little worth in real labor. It is thought to 
be poetic, sentimental, impracticable, and of service in the avocations 
rather than the vocations of life. Even writers upon mental philoso- 



166 PESTALOZZIi 

phy seem to have been lost in a kind of fog when attempting to de- 
fine its nature and office. 

The mind must have the power to use the ideas it obtains, or 
they are of little worth; and, to use them well, it must combine them 
into new forms, thus discovering new relations. Imagination is usu- 
ally considered reproductive as well as productive. The former, how- 
ever, means but little more than a vivid recollection, while the latter 
alone expresses the true idea of the recombining or inventive faculty. 
Before the imagination can be developed and trained, the mind must 
be in possession of a large number of definite ideas, and have the 
ability to perceive the relations that exist between them. Both of 
these conditions are furnished by the Objective System in a much 
higher degree than by any other. 

Again, by furnishing the mind with proper and congenial subjects 
of thought, the disastrous consequences of a perverted imagination are 
avoided. When occupied with ideas which have a real and tangible 
basis, the mind obtains quicker perceptions of true relations and a 
desire for further investigation ; thus (he imagination is impelled in 
the right direction. Deprived of this food, it uses the impulses 
which spring from ill -regulated appetites and passions, and creates a 
world which is unreal, and may be grotesque or prurient. The task 
imposed upon pupils of studying words instead of ideas, of trying to 
understand subjects above their comprehension, tends to paralyze the 
imagination, or force it into channels unnatural and dangerous. The 
baleful influence of improper sights and immoral books is a matter 
that is continually forced upon the attention of teachers and parents. 
So potent are the evils arising therefrom, that it has become a seri- 
ous question with many well-meaning people, whether the imagination 
is not a faculty of evil rather than beneficence, one that ought to be 
destroyed rather than developed. 

When the mind is filled with pleasing ideas ; when it is stimulated 
through all the organs of sense; when its energies are taxed to the 
utmost; when its powers are brought into action in the exact order 
of nature, — then will the imagination find plenty of employment in 
the real world, and will not so readily wander away into by and for- 
bidden paths ; and the evils now so deplored, and so largely attributa- 
ble to false methods of instruction will disappear. 

Reason. — We do not propose to give here an exhaustive disserta- 
tion upon the subject of reason, or to attempt to reconcile the con- 
flicting ideas of philosophers concerning it. The general office of 
reason seems, however, to be well understood. Leading through 
definite processes to definite results, it is the guide to imagination. 



HIS METHOD. 167 

It places all knowledge in due order of dependence, and discovers 
ultimate relations through a succession of logical steps. Its activities 
lie entirely in the field of knowledge ; and its conclusions are val- 
uable just in proportion to the breadth of the foundations upon 
which its premises rest, and to the exact dependence of the steps of 
its processes. 

Generalization, which is indispensable to classification, supplies pre- 
mises from which new and important deductions can be made, and 
is an outgrowth of reasoning. The reasoning, which is the re- 
sult of limited observation and imperfect investigation, arrives at 
results which are as likely to be false as to be true, and are calcu- 
lated to deceive from their resemblance to true logical conclusions. 
The person who indulges in such reasoning, or is influenced by it, 
not only accepts false conclusions, but his mind becomes contracted, 
and he loses all desire for that broader investigation necessary to the 
establishment of genuine truth. He is content to take the semblance 
for the reality. 

Again, if reason, whose office is to arrange facts in their order of 
dependence or to construct science, has a narrow basis of facts, its 
classification is incomplete and worthless. The value of the process 
of tracing cause and effect, and the results obtained, are in direct pro- 
portion to the number of facts taken into consideration, and to the 
care and minuteness with which these facts have been observed and 
investigated. No exceptional or special power of reasoning can com- 
pensate for the lack of that knowledge upon which it is based. In- 
deed, the stronger the process of reasoning and the more perfect the 
logic exercised upon a narrow and insufficient foundation of facts, the 
greater is the certainty of false conclusions and distorted views of 
life, culminating in unwise actions. 

The work of the educator in regard to reason seems to be very 
plain. He is to so prepare the mind of his pupils that reason may 
guide them invariably to truth. To do this, the perception must be 
cultivated in such a manner that conclusions will be based upon ex- 
perience. The retaining and recollecting faculties must be active and 
faithful, and the imagination must be so exercised as to perceive 
the relations which come from all possible combinations. When a 
pupil is thus trained, reason will act correctly, and he can be easily 
led from simple facts and relations through easy and logical steps 
to the solution of complicated problems in science and in life. 

From this examination of all the faculties of the mind, the order 
of their development, and their modes of action, we are able to estab- 
lish the truth and excellence of Pestalozzi's work, and the importance 



168 PESTALOZZI. 

of the great educational movement which he inaugurated. No matter 
how slowly these ideas may make their way; no matter how fiercely 
they may be assailed, they are like leaven in the measure of meal. 
These truths, which form the basis of the Pestalozzian method, had 
long existed as intellectual convictions in the minds of philosophers, 
and had even been expressed in proverbs and apothegms ; but it was 
Pestalozzi who first showed, by actual experiment, how they might be 
made the basis of universal education, and the means by which hu- 
manity might be elevated. When he proved that the faculties should 
be unfolded in an orderly and intelligent manner, he undermined the 
very foundation of empiricism ; Avhen he pointed out the value of 
Objective Teaching, the idolatrous worship of words was placed under 
the ban of human intelligence ; and when he so eloquently and faith- 
fully demonstrated the necessity of observing and respecting the indi- 
viduality of every child, arbitrary authority and routine became 
obsolete. 



CHAPTER III. 

SPECIAL APPLICATION OF PESTALOZZI'S METHOD. 

A METHOD of treating this subject which shall deal justly with 
the principles involved, the experiments of Pestalozzi, and 
the transformation which the work has undergone, is not easy to find. 
We might present a faithful sketch of Pestalozzi's own experiments 
and scattered exercises before they were rearranged by his associates; 
we might give a description of the workings of his Institution in the 
most flourishing stage of its existence ; or we might describe the 
manner in which the branches of instruction are treated in the so- 
called Pestalozzian schools of the present day. In either case, our 
presentation would be one-sided and partial, and would give little 
idea of the extent to which these principles have been applied to the 
different departments of education. Many of Pestalozzi's own exper- 
iments were obviously failures, and were abandoned as soon as tried. 
Subsequent investigation has shown that they were often antagonistic 
to the principles which they sought to embody. Even as modified 
by his associates and used in his Institution they were necessarily 
crude, and have since been greatly improved. 

We make this statement in consideration of the fact that the 
American public, through Barnard's Review, has been made ac- 
quainted with a criticism of Pestalozzi's method by Raumer, an emi- 
nent German writer, a friend and cotemporary of Pestalozzi. This 
criticism was written for readers in Germany, where the principles 
of Pestalozzi were well-known and appreciated, and was mainly in- 
tended to show how far the application of the method fell short of 
the principles on which it was based. This view of the subject is 
calculated to mislead the American reader who has no knowledge 
of the real nature of Pestalozzi's work, and whose attention is thus 
called only to its accidental crudities and defects rather than to its 
intrinsic merits. 

In regard to the treatment of the branches in the Pestalozzian 
schools of the present day, there are wide differences. Even in the 

(169) 



170 PESTALOZZI. 

same school, the principles which are followed in one department are 
often violated in another. To examine and intelligently criticise all 
that has been done, and all that educators are now doing in this di- 
rection, would far exceed the scope and limits of this work; and we 
shall, therefore, content ourselves with giving Pestalozzi's own ideas 
upon some branches and the leading characteristics which all his 
followers have mainly observed. 

Pestalozzi, in the sketch of his early experiments, dwells exclusively 
on the elements of each science ; and wisely, for they furnish a safe 
foundation. In the old system they were entirely neglected. 

Spelling. — This subject had previously been taught by using only 
the names of the letters; but neither the frown of the austere school- 
master, nor the birch scepter in his hand, could induce the trembling 
culprit on the bench to find out, without many a blunder, the true 
pronunciation of a word from repeating the names of the letters 
which compose it, — to see that aitch a tee should produce the word 
hat. Pestalozzi substituted the real sounds for the names of the 
letters, and thus gave a powerful impulse to the phonetic method, 
now r in use in all good schools. 

Number. — Pestalozzi and his associates made more radical changes 
in the teaching of Arithmetic than in that of any other branch of 
science; but the methods which they developed are now so univer- 
sally practiced that nothing new can be said of them. These methods 
were introduced in the face of a fierce and prolonged opposition from 
the advocates of the formal method of "ciphering"; but the excel- 
lencies of the new system were perfectly demonstrated by its advo- 
cates. A series of carefully graduated exercises, conforming to the 
natural development of the faculties of the mind, were arranged by 
Kriisi, and were afterward revised and extended by Ramsauer, 
►Sehmid, and others. 

Pestalozzi's first views upon the subject are shown by the following 
extract from "How Gertrude Teaches her Children": "The science 
of Arithmetic arises altogether from the combination and separation 
of units. Its fundamental formula is this : One and one are two ; 
one from two leaves one. Any number, whatever its name, is noth- 
ing but an abridgment of this elementary process of counting. It is 
of the utmost importance that this ultimate basis of all number should 
not be obscured in the mind by arithmetical abbreviations. The 
science of numbers must be so taught that their real properties and 
proportions may lie deeply impressed on the mind. If this be neg- 



APPLICATION OF PESTALOZZl'S METHOD. 171 

lected, the study of number will be degraded into a mere plaything 
of the child's memory and imagination, and its object, of course, 
entirely defeated. 

"If, for instance, we learn by rote that three and four make 
seven, and we then build upon this seven as if we actually compre- 
hended it, we deceive ourselves ; we have no real apprehension of 
seven, because we are not conscious of the real fact, the actual sight 
of which can alone give truth and reality to the hollow sound. 

"The first impressions of numerical proportions should be given to 
the child by illustrating the variations of more and less with real ob- 
jects placed in his view. My first arithmetical exercises may be found 
in the ' Mother's Manual,' the first tables of which are intended to 
bring distinctly before the eyes of the child the ideas of one, two, 
three, etc., up to ten. I then call upon him to select the pictures of 
the objects which represent one ; then those which are double, triple, 
etc. After this I make him go over the same numbers with his 
fingers, with beans, pebbles, or any other objects which may be at 
hand. He is still more deeply impressed by repeating them many 
times a day on the spelling-tablet,* first dividing each word into its 
syllables, and then asking : ' How many syllables has this word ? ' 
' What is the first, the second, the third?' 'How many letters in the 
first, second, third syllable?' etc. In this manner children are made 
perfectly familiar Avith the elements of numbers, and the conception 
of them remains present to their minds while learning the use of their 
abridgments, figures, in which they must not be exercised before the 
former be fully secured. The most important advantage gained hy 
this proceeding is the acquisition of clear ideas, and it is almost in- 
credible how great a facility in the art of calculating the child derives 
from this method of teaching. 

"Any objects may be used for teaching Arithmetic, each one rep- 
resenting a unit. An object is presented, and the teacher asks: 
' How many objects are there here ? ' The children answer, ' There 
is but one.' The teacher, adds one, and asks again : ' One and one, 
how many are there?' Answer: 'One and one are two.' And so 
I go on, adding first one at a time; then two, three, etc. 

" After the child has, in this manner, come to a full understanding 
of the combinations of units up to ten, and has learned to express 
himself with perfect ease in each particular case, the objects are again 
presented, but the questions are changed : ' If we have two objects, 



*The Spelling-tablet is an apparatus on which the letters, fixed on little 
squares of pasteboard, arc made to slide in and out. 



172 PESTALOZZI. 

how many times one object?' The child looks, counts, and answers 
correctly : ' If there are two objects, we have two times one object.' 

"The child having thus distinctly and repeatedly counted over the 
parts of each number up to ten, and having obtained a clear view of 
the number of units in each, the question is again changed — the ob- 
jects being still before him: 'Two, how many times one is it?' 
' Three, how many times one ? ' Or, again : ' How many times is one 
contained in two, three?' etc. After the child has, by these means, 
been made acquainted with the simple operations in addition, multi- 
plication, and division, subtraction is to be taught upon the same plan. 
The ten objects being placed together, the teacher takes away one of 
them, and asks: 'If I take one from ten, how many remain?' The 
child counts, finds nine, and answers: 'If you take one from ten, it 
leaves nine.' The teacher then takes away a second object ; and so 
on to the end." 



These exercises may be continued in a great variety of forms with 
all the numbers up to ten. The table which was intended to bring 
these facts before the perception of the pupil, formed, for a long time, 
a prominent feature in all Pestalozzian schools. It even appeared in 
the first edition of Warren Oolburn's Mental Arithmetic ; but has 
since been superseded by the ball -frame, and other meatus used in 
infant schools. We give above a representation of the original table, 
which, executed on a large scale, might still form a useful addition to 
school apparatus. 

"When the child lias mastered these tables," says Pestalozzi, "he 
will have acquired so complete a knowledge of the real properties and 



APPLICATION OF PESTALOZZl's METHOD. 173 

proportions of numbers that he will be able to enter, with the utmost 
facility, upon the common abridged modes of calculating by figures. 
His mind can not be confused : his computations are a rational pro- 
cess, not a mere mechanical work of the memory. 

" But increase and diminution are not confined to units: they apply 
also to that second department of Arithmetic in which we find every 
unit capable of division and subdivision into an indefinite number of 
parts. In the discussion of units, a line was used for illustration. 
For this new department, it is necessary to find a figure which may be 
divided to an indefinite extent in such a manner that each part is an 
independent unit analogous to the whole ; and that the child may 
have the relation of the fraction to the whole as clearly before his 
eyes as by three distinct lines he sees the relation of three to one. 

"The only figure adapted to this purpose is the square. By means 
of it, the diminution of each single part and the proportionate increase 
of the number of parts by the continued division and subdivision of 
the unit may be made as evident as the ascending scale of numbers 
by the addition or multiplication of units." 

From our present stand-point, it is quite evident that the use of the 
square, a mere figure, upon which Pestalozzi so much relied, is a 
much less philosophical means of teaching fractions than a real object, 
like an apple, as the latter appeals to more than one sense. The 
method was right, although the means employed were not the best 
that could have been devised. There is a strong tendency on the 
part of teachers to confound method with the means by which it is 
illustrated ; and at one time Pestalozzi and some of his followers fell 
into that error. 

The pupils of Sehmid and Ramsauer attained a clearness, precision, 
and rapidity in the solution of questions of Mental Arithmetic, which 
excited the admiration of all who heard them, and which have hardly 
been surpassed in the present day. This success is due, in part, to 
the enthusiasm with which the work was performed ; and, in part, to 
the fact that illustration was carried to a far greater extent than it is 
now. 

We append the report of a lesson in number, made by Von Turk, 
when he visited the school in its earlier days. It may be presumed 
that the idea of number from one to ten had already been developed. 

" ' What do you see here?' 

" 'Beans.' 

" ' Of what color are they?' 

" ' Yellow, with a white spot.' 

" ' How are they placed ? ' 



174 PESTALOZZI. 

" ' In a .straight row.' 

"'On which side are the germs or white spots?' 
" ' On the left side.' 

" 'How do the distances between them compare?' 
" 'They are equally distant from each other.' 
' ' ' How many are there ? ' 
" ' There are eight beans.' 

"The children were here required, as an exercise in language, to 
describe the color, position, and relative distance of the beans from 
each other ; as, 'I see eight beans lying in a straight row on the 
table; they are yellow, and equally distant from each other.' 

"In the second part of the lesson, changes were made while the 
children turned away from the teacher. They were then required to 
give an account of these changes in answer to questions like the 
following : 
" ' What change do you see in the position of the beans?' 
" 'They are farther apart.' 
" ' Is there any change in the number?' 
" ' There are eight beans, as before.' 
" ' What other change do you see?' 
" 'They lie in a crooked row.' 
" ' Any other change ? ' 
" ' The germs are on the right side.' 
" ' What do you see me do now?' 
" ' You take away two beans.' 
" 'How many are left?' 
" 'There are six left.' 

"The teacher places the remaining beans farther apart, asking: 
" ' How many do you see now?' 
" ' We see six beans.' 

" ' Look at the space they occupy; are there not as many as before?' 
" 'They occupy the same space, but they are farther apart.' 
" ' What, then, do you say when two beans are taken from eight 
beans ? ' 

" ' Two beans taken from eight beans leave six beans.' 
" ' How many beans must be added to six beans to make eight beans?' 
" 'Two beans.' 

"The summing up of the changes which were made gives rise to 
composition in which the verb is used in the past tense and in con- 
nection with adverbs of time ; as, ' You placed the beans farther 
apart, and then turned the germs toward the right side, and laid 
them in a crooked row,' etc." 



APPLICATION OF PESTALOZZl'S METHOD. 175 

We would like to call especial attention to the principles that 
characterize this exercise, considered as an object lesson. 

First. — That a full recognition is made of the fact, that children 
gain their practical knowledge of things in connection with many 
circumstances which they consider in turn, although they alternately 
fix their attention upon each point. 

Second. — That the language of a child is far better cultivated by 
a full account of what is passing before him, than by isolated words 
or fragmentary sentences. 

Third. — That a mingling of play with instruction is a healthful in- 
centive to the attainment of knowledge, and conduces to the well- 
being of both mind and body. 

Drawing. — It is an interesting fact that Pestalozzi, though no 
adept in many of the branches for the teaching of which he tried to 
establish a better method, seemed to know, as by intuition, the real 
foundation of the sciences, and the principal defects in the manner in 
which each had been taught. This was preeminently true of Draw- 
ing; for he was hardly able to draw a line correctly. He says: "In 
endeavoring to teach Writing, I found I must begin by teaching Draw- 
ing; and when I took the latter in hand, I saw that the art of meas- 
uring was involved. 

" The common method of proceeding is to begin with an incorrect 
view and a crooked representation of the object ; to erase, draw 
again, and repeat this tedious process until, by degrees, an instinctive 
feeling of the proportions is awakened. At last, measuring, which 
should have been the first process, is resorted to. 

"Our artists do not measure; but, by long practice, they acquire 
a greater or less precision in imitating outlines, and this obviates the 
necessity of measuring. Each has his own method of procedure 
but he is unable to explain it ; hence, if he teaches others, he leaves 
them to grope in the dark, even as he did, and to acquire, by great 
exertion and perseverance, the same instinctive feeling of proportions. 
This is why art has remained exclusively in the hands of a few priv- 
ileged individuals, who have talent and leisure to pursue a circuit- 
ous road. Yet, Drawing ought to be a universal acquirement, be- 
cause the talent for it is universally inherent. 

"A taste for Drawing invariably manifests itself in the child with- 
out any assistance from art ; while the task of learning to read and 
write is. on account of its difficulty, so disagreeable to children that 
it requires great art or great violence to overcome the aversion which 
they often evince. In some instances, they sustain a greater injury 



17(3 PESTALOZZI. 

from the means adopted to gain their attention and to force their 
application, than can ever be repaid by the advantages accruing to 
them from the possession of these acquirements. 

"In proposing, however, the art of Drawing as a general branch 
of education, it must not be forgotten that I coirsider it as a means of 
leading the child from vague perceptions to clear ideas. To accom- 
plish this object, it must not be separated from the art of measuring. 
If the child be made to imitate objects before he has acquired a dis- 
tinct idea of their proportions, his instruction in the art of Drawing 
will fail to produce upon his mental development that beneficial in- 
fluence which alone renders it valuable." 

The principles so clearly enunciated can not fail to command gen- 
eral assent. They may be considered as the foundation of all reform 
in this important branch of education. In determining the consecu- 
tive exercises for a course of instruction, Pestalozzi is less fortunate; 
for in this we find, mixed with truth, many errors, arising from his 
inadequate knowledge of the details of science. To Buss was in- 
trusted the difficult and somewhat mysterious task of constructing an 
" alphabet of form." This alphabet was found in the various lines of 
a figure drawn within a square, and consisting of vertical, horizontal, 
and diagonal lines, and in arcs placed in the four principal points of 
direction. The error of this plan is more in application than in gen- 
eral conception. Pestalozzi was evidently in search of the elements 
of form, out of which simple figures or patterns, corresponding to 
words in language, could be constructed. These patterns are again 
united to form figures more and more elaborate, as words are to form 
sentences, and sentences discourse. The alphabet which he formed, 
consisting of straight lines and the arc, is not, however, sufficient to 
express all the varied forms of nature's work, and therefore is incom- 
plete. 

Pestalozzi had but little knowledge of Geometry, Perspective, and 
their kindred branches; hence, when he entered into the minute de- 
tails of Drawing, he was liable to circumscribe the subject within too 
narrow limits, and to lav a foundation without sufficiently consider- 
ing the superstructure to he erected upon it. 

Language. — Pestalozzi found in Language the same want of system 
as in Drawing. He was obliged to enter upon the field of untried 
experiment, and the circuitous routes which he traversed could not 
fail to lead him astray, although he pursued, in the main, the right 
direction. 

The exercises which he suggested as an introduction to reading, 



APPLICATION OF PESTALOZZl'S METHOD. 177 

though imperfect, contain the germ of that instruction which has 
rendered Language the interpreter of reality and the expression of 
thought. He says: "After I began to teach reading, T found that 
my pupils wanted first to be taught speaking; and when I attempted 
this, I was forced to begin with single sounds, and from these to 
build up words, and from words, sentences." 

His remarks upon the necessity of making observation the basis of 
language, thinking of speaking, and speaking of writing, are very im- 
pressive. His denunciations can not be called severe, when we con- 
sider that the system of education then in vogue had led the people 
to become worshipers of words. Many of our schools are open to the 
same criticism. 

"The people of our portion of the world are sunk to such a depth, 
because,for more than a century in their common schools, an influence 
over the human mind has been accorded to words, which not only 
destroys the power of attention to the impressions of nature, but 
mars the very susceptibility of men toward them. I say once more, 
that while this has been done, and has made some of our European 
people the most wordy chatter-boxes on the face of the earth, they 
have not been taught to speak. 

"This being the case, is it a wonder that the civilization of this 
century and of this part of the world is sunk to its present low con- 
dition ? or, is it not rather a wonder that, considering the clumsy and 
absurd methods which have been practiced, human intelligence has 
retained so much of its native force as to be still recognized ? But 
God be praised! the folly of all these apish methods will, in the end, 
find an antagonist in human nature itself; and when they have 
reached the greatest extreme of apishness which can be endured, they 
will cease to injure our race. Folhj and error, in whatever garb, con- 
tain the seals of their own dissolution. Truth alone, in every form, con- 
tains within itself the seed* of eternal life." 

We make no extracts from the exercises which were given on this 
subject ; partly, because they apply to words and forms peculiar to 
the German language, and partly, because they were but crude 
experiments. 

Geography. — In his efforts to systematize Geography, Pestalozzi 
seems to have violated the principles of a sound system of instruction. 
This resulted from an undue attention to an alphabetical and, there- 
fore, arbitrary arrangement of Geographical names, which he wished 
to impress upon the mind or, rather, upon the memories of the pupils. 
He evidently had not, at that time, a correct conception of the true 
T\ 12. 



178 PESTALOZZI. 

office and purpose of Geography, but considered it as a means tor the 
cultivation of language ; yet, through his general views of education, 
he inspired his personal friends, Tobler, Henning, Schacht, and Ritter, 
with an enthusiasm for that branch, which has resulted in making it 
one of the most useful pursued in our schools. 

The principles of Pestalozzi, that the facts of elementary hwtvledge 
should be clearly impressed on the perceptions of children, and that in- 
struction should proceed from that which is near to that which is distant, 
are perhaps more imperatively demanded in Geography than in any 
other study ; and yet in no branch of instruction are these princi- 
ples more constantly violated. 

The pupil, to pursue the study of Geography correctly, should 
understand the art of measuring, so as to be able to give the relative 
position of places. A true conception of the cardinal points of direc- 
tion is also requisite at the outset, and these should be obtained from 
the position of the sun in rising and setting, so that the false im- 
pression, obtained from the study of the maps, that north is up 
and south is down, shall never be made. From the knowledge so 
obtained, the pupil may be led to observe and describe the school- 
room, the play-ground, the garden, the farm, and all places with 
which he is familiar. 

Whatever he sees, he should be taught to represent in the form of 
a map, in the construction of which the ideas of measurement and 
proportion should always be observed. The perception of a hill will 
lead to the comprehension of a mountain ; of the windings of a brook, 
to the knowledge of an island, a peninsula, an isthmus, a bay, a 
cape, and a sea. With this sure basis of thorough home knowledge, 
the pupil is prepared to comprehend the essential features of the 
countries which lie beyond the reach of Ins personal observations; 
for then he holds the key of all geographical knowledge. 

Singing. — We have already stated that Pestalozzi is generally cor- 
rect when governed by his feelings, though he sometimes erred in 
his judgment. Of the science of music he knew nothing, and, al- 
though he by no means undervalued it as an intellectual process, 
yet he regarded it chiefly in its softening and humanizing effects 
upon character and society. He says: 

" It is not proficiency in music which I consider most important. 
It is the marked and most beneficial influence which it has on the 
feelings, and which I have always thought to be very efficient in 
preparing and attuning us for the best impressions. The exquisite 
harmony of a superior performance, the studied elegance of the exe- 



APPLICATION OF PESTALOZZI'S METHOD. 179 

eution may give satisfaction to a connoisseur ; but it is the simple 
music which speaks to the heart. The natural melodies, which have 
from time immemorial been resounding in our native valleys, are 
fraught with reminiscences of the brightest parts of our history, and 
of the most endearing scenes of domestic life. The effect of music 
in education is not alone to keep alive a national feeling: it goes 
much deeper. If cultivated in the right spirit, it strikes at the root 
of every bad or narrow feeling, of every ungenerous or mean pro- 
pensity, of every emotion unworthy of humanity. 

" Those schools and families, in which music has retained its cheer- 
ful and chaste character, have invariably given evidences of moral 
feeling and, consequently, of happiness, which leave no doubt of 
the intrinsic value of that art which has sunk into neglect or degen- 
erated into abuse, only in the ages of barbarism or depravity." ' 

The first application of Pestalozzi's principles to the teaching of 
singing was made by his friend Nageli, an eminent and successful 
Swiss composer, well-known to the musical and educational world. 
The question which he undertook to solve was, how to make music, 
with all its elevating influences, a popular branch of instruction, and 
not merely an appendage or ornament of fashionable circles. This 
could be done only by reducing it, like other sciences, to its true ele- 
ments ; and by leading the pupils to combine these elements in a pro- 
gressive manner, so that they could appreciate the essential parts of 
a musical composition. Time, melody, and force were the three 
points to which especial attention was given. Nageli made it the 
duty of the teacher to lead his pupils to a thorough mastery of the 
length, quality, and pitch of tones, rather than to a mere imitation 
of Ins own voice. In this manner, he could avoid the unnatural 
strain of the voice, and the mere rote teaching, incident to the old 
methods, and could lead his pupils to the discovery of pleasing com- 
binations, thus stimulating their invention and developing their taste. 

The most approved systems of teaching music, at the present day, 
are but modifications of that devised by Nageli, and are the results 
of a wider experience and of a more systematic application of the 
principles of Pestalozzi. 

Farther quotations from Pestalozzi's writings would only tend to 
corroborate what has already been clearly shown, that, in applying his 
principles of education to specific branches, he often wandered from 
the true path ; but that running through all are philosophic ideas 
worthy of the great fame of their author. We have already stated 
that it was Niederer, who, in answer to a demand which had become 



ISO PESTALOZZI. 

imperative when Pestalozzi's enterprise had attracted the general at- 
tention of the people of Europe, first attempted to give a calm and 
systematic exposition of the principles and their application. The 
impassioned appeals of the latter were better calculated to win the 
heart; and the clear, sharp, philosophical utterances of the former 
to convince the intellect. 



CHAPTER IV. 
APPLICATION OF THE METHOD OF PESTALOZZL— Continued. 

WE have already stated that the principles which underlie Pes- 
talozzi's method have been partially recognized by enlightened 
men of all ages. This does not, however, deprive him and his fol- 
lowers of the merit of having discovered and opened new avenues of 
thought and action, by which to reach the faculties whose develop- 
ment is the very soul of education. For instance, as soon as the im- 
portance of imagination as an educational agent was recognized, 
invention was appealed to. The most elementary, and, at the same 
time, the most pleasing, application of this principle is found in the 
exercises known under the name — 

Inventive Drawing. — In the introductory exercises of this course of 
Drawing, objects representing length, like sticks, pencils, etc., are 
placed in different directions, and the lines which represent them are 
drawn on the board or slate. In this manner all the elements of 
form, straight and curved, are introduced and mastered. The per- 
ception is cultivated and the hand trained. These forms are now com- 
bined by the pupils, and this stimulates and strengthens the inventive 
faculty. For instance, the children are taught to combine curvilinear 
angles of different forms, like the following : 






so as to form pretty little designs, each containing only one kind 
of angle. 



/ 



V 



(181) 



182 



PKSTALOZZI. 



By combining two kinds of angles the designs become modified in 
various ways. 





If to each a third kind of angle be added, the designs become more 
complicated, and a great variety may be produced. 





The progressive character of such exercises will be manifest to 
every one. The hand of the pupil will be as well trained as by mere 
imitation. Observation and imagination are both stimulated, and a 
feeling of self-reliance is engendered, which is one of the great ends 
of all education. The development of an independent art also rests 
upon the basis of invention. Schelling, the German philosopher, re- 
marks : "Every original product of art arises from the depth of im- 
agination, branching out into an infinite variety of forms, and com- 
bining, at last, into one graceful whole. This power of invention can 
not be communicated, for it is a pure gift of nature." 

Composition. — The relation of Grammar to language is ably ex- 
pressed in the following passage, which breathes the spirit of Pesta- 
lozzi, and is from the writings of the celebrated Dr. Chalmers: " In 
former years, the acquisition of Grammar was believed to be a nec- 
essary consequence of a classical education ; and little or no pains was 
taken to acquaint the young with the peculiar forms of the native 
tongue. Afterward, a course of English Grammar and Composition 
was introduced into many schools ; but in a form inconsistent with 
nature, and, therefore, incapable of success. According to this plan, 
the pupils, often at a premature age, learn by heart the rules in a 



APPLICATION OF PESTALOZZl's METHOD. 183 

little treatise. When these are mastered they are put to the prac- 
tice of them in the composition of essays ; but without being able 
to apply or make use of the knowledge they have acquired, because 
it was only a knowledge of words, and not a perception of what the 
rules meant. The result is that the pupils compose their essays by 
mere imitation ; and at last leave school with little sense of the 
principles, and as little acquaintance with the practice, of grammatical 
composition as they had when they commenced. 

"This plan, with its various modifications, being obviously insuffi- 
cient, it becomes important to inquire, by what -means are we to 
confer upon the young learner the knowledge of Grammar and skill 
in Composition which he requires for so many of the most important 
duties of life? In this inquiry, we join with those who proceed phil- 
osophically ; in other words, we endeavor to ascertain the principle 
established with reference to this subject in the unerring economy of 
nature. What, in the first place, is the nature of Composition ? The 
etymological meaning is putting together, in which sense it is employed 
in painting, music, and language. In regard to language, this is a 
process which commences at a very early period of life. The prattle 
of an infant is in reality a composition; a putting together of words 
to express ideas; a process the same in kind, though not in degree, as 
that which takes place in the most matured mind. Now, in learning 
to speak, the child is guided by no rules: no Grammar is required to 
prepare him for oral composition. Necessity impels, imitation teaches, 
practice establishes. Locke says, ' Remember, children are not to be 
taught by rules which will always be slipping from their memories. 
What you think is necessary for them to do, settle in them by indis- 
pensable practice.' If, then, a child can compose spoken sentences 
without any previous knowledge of rules, what is to prevent him 
from forming written ones? In the one case, the instrument of ex- 
pression is the tongue ; in the other, the pen : but the process of com- 
bining ideas and the process of turning these ideas into conventional 
terms, whether sounds or marks, are precisely the same in both. 
Where, then, is the absolute need of Grammar to teach the pupil to 
do this? Might it not as well be argued that he must be taught 
Grammar before being allowed to speak? The legitimate sphere of 
Grammar is correction, not suggestion. Language is the foundation, 
the source of Grammar, and the pupil must be properly trained in 
the former before the inferences of the latter can be of service. 
Hence, not only is there no need of forcing one through a treatise of 
Grammar to make him a composer, but it is positively injurious to 
do so. 



184 PESTALOZZI. 

"Rule* are results; and, whatever be .the science or art, sound 
mental training consists in leading the pupils up to the steps by 
which these results are attained, so that he is not only interested in 
the process, but capable of valuing the product. The habit thus 
formed is the great end, which, however, can never be gained by 
reversing the business, or, what is still worse, by handing the pupils 
ready made rules, without even a hint as to the mode of their deduc- 
tion. To learn Grammar, and Syntax, then, as the end, instead of the 
beginning, is following precisely the course of nature, is learning the 
language synthetically, learning it, in fine, the very way in which 
the language itself has been formed. That part of intellectual educa- 
tion which aims at teaching the mother tongue seems capable of ar- 
rangement, in natural connection, under two heads : 
" I. The acquisition of ideas by means of objects. 

"II. The expression of ideas by words. 

" With regard to the second, it is obvious that the pupil must 
have been to a considerable extent prepared for it while acquiring 
ideas ; for, in the plan proposed, the communication of a knowledge 
of words goes hand in hand with a knowledge of things." 

This extract clearly and forcibly expresses the general aim of the 
language exercises in Pestalozzi's school, and those of his German fol- 
lowers. The title of these exercises, Denk und Rede-ubungen — Thought 
ami Language Exercises — shows that they considered thought first and 
expression afterward. Thought, however, may be the result of 
present and past observations, and, arising in either way, may be the 
basis of exercises in language. 

Pestalozzi, in his "Mother's Manual," made the human body, with 
its parts and their relations, the first subject for contemplation and 
description, considering the body of man to be nearest to man. He 
made his pupils describe other things also, but committed the error 
of forming the sentences which the pupils might have constructed for 
themselves. Ramsauer says: "He lets the pupils repeat, or rather 
scream after him, ' I see a wainscot : there is a long, narrow hole in 
the wainscot: through the hole I see the wall,'" etc. In this manner 
historical names and dates were taught. 

The impatience of Pestalozzi, which impelled him continually to 
prompt the pupil, both in the idea and expression of it, was not pos- 
sessed by Kriisi, who prepared a course of lessons in which the 
teacher and pupil alternately question and answer each other. This 
course was arranged under the following heads: "Exercises," first, 
"Concerning organs of sense;" second, "Organs of motion and 
action;" third, "Organs of nutrition;" fourth, "Organs of speech." 



APPLICATION' OF PESTA LOZZl's METHOD. 185 

We sec by this that Krusi considered effects as a better starting- 
point for children than causes. Under the second division there 
was a good opportunity to discuss the actions performed in different 
trades; and he puts to the children such questions as these: Who 
cuts? Where? When? Why? etc. In the exercises of the third di- 
vision he asks: Who eats? When does he eat? Where? etc. In 
this manner valuable information was often obtained; and all the 
ideas were afterward summed up in the form of a little composi- 
tion. Still the facts and actions discussed, although generally known, , 
were not seen, and the lessons served principally as exercises in . 
language. 

These exercises give a very incomplete idea of what has been done 
in this respect by the German teachers, many of whom show great 
originality in making out their courses. In one of his reports, 
Horace Mann says: "In the 'study-plans' of nearly all the schools, 
I found a separate hour devoted to these exercises. The lessons 
consisted of familiar conversations between teacher and pupils, 
on subjects adapted to the age, capacities, and proficiency of the 
latter. With the youngest classes, things immediately around them, — 
the school-room and the materials of which it had been built; its dif- 
ferent parts, as foundation, floor, Avails, ceiling, roof, door, fire-place ; 
its furniture and apparatus ; its books, slates, paper ; the clothes of 
the pupils and the materials of which they had been made ; then- 
food and playthings ; the duties of children to animals, to each other, 
to their parents, to neighbors, to the old, to their Maker. As the 
children advanced in age and attainments, and had acquired full and 
definite notions of the visible and tangible existences around them, 
and also of time and space, so that they could understand descrip- 
tions of the unseen and remote, the scope of these lessons was en- 
larged, so as to take in the different kingdoms of nature, the arts, 
trades, and occupations of men, and the more complicated affairs of 
society." 

< )l»ject Lessons, as introduced into England by Miss Mayo, and 
into this country by Mr. Sheldon, are of quite a different character, 
.since all the subjects are illustrated by objects or pictures placed be- 
fore the children to be seen and handled, thus stimulating observation 
and cultivating perception directly. This process seems best adapted 
to the practical spirit of the Anglo-Saxon race, as it accords with 
their habits of arriving at conclusions through ;i quickness of percep- 
tion, rather than by reflection. 

It is easy to criticise either method, when carried to an extreme. 
While the exercises of the German method are admirably adapted to 



186 PESTALOZZI. 

freedom of expression in oral composition, they are often desultory, 
and there is a want of that novelty and animation necessary to the 
nature of childhood. In the English there is an occasional tendency 
to encumber the exercises with technical terms, and stiff, formal 
sentences, before the full meaning of those terms and statements is 
properly understood. 

The highest result in the future will doubtless be obtained by the 
judicious use of both these processes, pruned of their errors and com- 
bined into one. The time is evidently at hand when what is now 
termed Object Lessons will be embraced under the more compre- 
hensive name of Objective Teaching, which will include all depart- 
ments of instruction ; while the correct expression of all ideas thus 
gained, whether in the form of discourse or of written composition, 
will be a practical course of language. 

Geometry. — Human reason is limited in its capacity and application. 
Man is, nevertheless, entitled to its free use, and should have an op- 
portunity of deciding for himself in regard to the truth or falsity of 
assertions. He should be allowed to link one thought to another in 
logical order, and express his thoughts and conclusions in his own lan- 
guage. In most of our schools the importance of this internal growth 
is overlooked, and the work itself altogether neglected. The mathe- 
matical branches afford, perhaps, the best field in which this inde- 
pendence of investigation and discovery can be exercised ; yet, in 
many of them, the old routine of study is still preserved. 

In Geometry, for instance, it is still the usual custom to have the 
pupils learn from the book the solutions of problems which have 
already been solved by others. No attempt is made to have them 
discover the relations which exist between the lines and angles under 
consideration ; nor are they led to make original application of gen- 
eral principles to the solution of special problems. Often they simply 
commit to memory the language. We do not hesitate to say, that, 
when this is the case, the time is entirely lost. Again, they are led 
to comprehend relations ; but the inventive faculties not being called 
into action, the knowledge they gain is rarely assimilated, but remains 
as something outside and apart from themselves. We will concede 
that a good teacher, even under this system, may infuse some little 
life into his teaching by frequent and varied questioning; but just in 
proportion as he does this, he lays aside his old system and approxi- 
mates to something better. 

In the Pestalozzian schools, the problems of Geometry are solved 
entirely by the ingenuity of the pupils. A preliminary discussion is 



APPLICATION OF PESTALOZZl's METHOD. 187 

held concerning certain first truths, and a foundation is laid for suc- 
cessful work. The propositions do not always follow those of the 
books, but are such as grow out of work already accomplished. 
After the first few steps are taken such strength is gained that the 
study becomes comparatively easy and progress very rapid. 

Pupils taught in this way accomplish much more in the same time 
than under the old system. Each problem is not only solved 
by ' different members of the class, but frequently the same pupil 
obtains several solutions. They express, in their own language, the 
result of their own investigations, and this makes a much deeper im- 
pression than could be made by the most concise and perfect argu- 
ment learned from a book. The imagination suggests the means 
through which the inventive faculty is called into action ; and the 
subject, viewed in all its relations and connections, no longer remains 
outside, but enters into the very texture of mind itself. 

Use of Booh. — It is frequently alleged, that the Pestalozzian method 
discards the use of books; and the maxim, "A child should never 
be told what he can find out for himself," is quoted in proof of the 
charge. We think, however, that, upon a critical examination, it will 
be found that it is the abuse, and not the me, of books which is called 
in question by the advocates of this system. When the Objective 
System of teaching comes into general use, there will, undoubtedly, 
be much less demand for text-books, especially for primary classes. 

It is evident, from the examination we have already given to the 
manner in which the mind must grow 7 , that the first lessons of child- 
hood upon every subject must be presented through the senses. Chil- 
dren should examine things, rather than read about them; they 
should express the results of their investigations in their own lan- 
guage, rather than adopt that which they find in books. This is 
especially true in regard to the natural sciences, which can never be 
thoroughly understood without illustration or experiment. Even the 
elements of mental and moral philosophy are better taught by refer- 
ring to the consciousness and experience of the pupil than by exam- 
ining any system of philosophy, however profound. 

In all these branches, after the elements are learned, books may be 
consulted with profit; provided their statements are subjected to intel- 
ligent criticism, and not accepted unquestioned. The records of the 
past are preserved in language and transmitted to us in books, and it 
is there alone that we can find the results which mark the progres- 
sive march of civilization. The attitude of the Pestalozzian toward 
books may be summed up in a single sentence. They are to be used 



188 PESTALOZZI. 

to supplement experience, and to supply those tacts that are not 
readily accessible by direct investigation. But every principle of 
philosophy utterly condemns any system of instruction that dogmat- 
ically enforces the doctrines of authors instead of leading the mind to 
original discovery. 

Morality and Religion. — In Ins whole work, Pestalozzi was inspired 
by the highest morality and the deepest religious convictions. His ear- 
nestness, his enthusiasm, his powerful appeals in behalf of the poor, 
the lowly, and the unfortunate, came from sources deeper than mere 
intellectual conclusions. His utterances, indeed, came directly from 
his heart ; they glowed with fervor, and were delivered with passion- 
ate eloquence ; but they lacked the order and method of mere intel- 
lectual achievements. The impulse which caused him to commence 
the work of teaching, at a time of life when most men are preparing 
to retire from active duties, was an intense pity for a class of unfort- 
unate children, who were deprived of the means of sustenance, of 
protection, and of opportunity, by the march of invading armies. 

Pestalozzi never claimed to be, in any sense, a religious teacher, 
and yet his work lays the foundation of all spiritual culture. He 
shows how the germ of conscience in the mind of an infant is quick- 
ened into action, and what must be the successive influences which 
will contribute to its growth. He makes all education culminate in 
character, and by this standard he measures all educational processes. 
In minds so quickened and cultured, the religious teacher finds his 
ends half accomplished. 

The child requires aid in the unfolding of his powers, analogous to 
that which the plant receives from the warm rays of the sun, and 
from the refreshing rain. But where shall the expanding mind first 
obtain this aid? "Where," answers Pestalozzi, "but in the sanctu- 
ary of the domestic circle, where God has placed the mother as the 
first, best, and most impressive teacher of childhood." The following 
extract from "How Gertrude teaches her Children," very fully gives 
his views upon the origin of moral perceptions : 

" 1 can not end my reflections without answering the question: 
' How is the mode of worshiping God connected with the principles 
which I have adopted for the development of mankind?' I try 
again to find the solution within myself; for, when I reflect upon 
how the idea of God arises within, how it is that I believe in God, 
that I feel happy in His love, and that I follow His commandments, 
I find that the feeling of love, confidence, and obedience must be 
develdped within myself before I can extend them toward God. I 



APPLICATION OF PESTAEOZZl's METHOD. 1 <S9 

must love man, confide in man, obey man, before I can be elevated 
to do the same with God. How can a man, who does not love his 
brother whom he sees, love his Father in Heaven whom he does not 
see? In tracing this sentiment to its primitive source, I find that it 
arises chiefly from the relation which exists between the mother and 
her infant. The mother is obliged by the power of instinct to nour- 
ish, to protect, and to foster her child. She does so ; she satisfies his 
wants ; she assists him in his weakness ; and the child feels happy in 
her care. The germ of love is thus developed. 

"An object which he never saw before is brought before his eyes. 
He stares, and is afraid. The mother presses him closer to her heart;, 
she plays with him, and his crying gradually ceases. When the ob- 
ject reappears, she again takes him into her protecting arms, and smiles 
on him. He does not cry now, but replies to the smile by a serene, 
confiding look. In this way the germ of confidence is developed. 

"The child recognizes his mother, and he likes those who resemble 
her. He smiles at the approach of his parents, and loves those whom 
they love, and those who love him. The germ of love toward his 
brother — toward mankind — is developed. 

"The first inclinations of sensual nature are opposed to obedience, 
the cultivation of which is partly a work of art, and not a simple 
consequence of instinct, though clearly connected with it. As love 
is preceded by want, confidence by fear, so obedience is preceded 
by a violent desire. The child will cry when he has to wait ; he 
will be impatient before obeying. 

"Patience is developed before obedience, for the child only obeys 
through patience. This virtue also must be developed under the 
guidance of the mother. The child must Avait before he receives 
food ; wait to be carried about ; wait for an obstacle to be removed. 
Nature is inflexible toward the impatient desires of the child. In 
his anger he will beat upon wood and stone, but he only injures his 
hand and will soon desist. In a similar way the mother has to be- 
come inflexible toward his irregular desires. If, when he rages and 
screams, the mother remains firm, he ceases to cry and learns to sub- 
mit his will to others. This develops the first germs of obedience. 

"Obedience and love, gratitude and confidence, develop the first 
germs of conscience. The child at last receives the impression that 
it is not right to resist a loving mother ; he will feel that she is not 
here for his sake alone, and that every thing has not been made for 
him. Together with this discovery, he will make another highly im- 
portant one, — that he is not in the world for his own pleasure alone. 
The first germs of dutv and right are thus awakened. 



190 PESTALOZZI. 

" Hardly has he become vaguely conscious of these important 
truths, when the world, with all its temptations, opens its arms to 
tear him from those of his parents, and seems to cry triumphantly, 
'Thou art mine.' This world, which is now spread out before the eye 
of the child, is not God's original creation : it is a world opposed to 
his innocent enjoyments ; egotistic in its means and aims ; full of con- 
tradiction, violence, presumption, lies, and fallacies. 

"O mankind! here at the transition from infancy to the first al- 
lurements of the world, when the tottering ground begins to give way 
beneath the foot of the child, when parents cease, to be his guardians 
— here at this critical point, thou oughtest to assert thy power by 
keeping up the feelings of love, gratitude, confidence, and obedience ; 
for God himself is embodied in these feelings. But alas! the world 
seems blinded to such an extent that it has hardly any heart or 
sympathy for this urgent appeal. Yet it can not be assumed that the 
nobler part of humanity does not see the necessity of an uninter- 
rupted series of means of development, by which to restrain the 
egotism of our reason, through the preservation of the purity of the 
heart, and to subordinate our sensuous impulses to conviction, our 
appetites to benevolence, and to the influence of a corrected and ele- 
vated will. 

"The first law in the scale of progress will be this: Let the first 
instruction of the child appeal to the heart and never to the head and 
reason ; let the second instruction of the human race proceed slowly 
from the exercise of the senses to that of the judgment ; let him re- 
main a long time in the care of woman before he is intrusted to 
man. What more shall I say? With these words, O Mother, the 
eternal laws of nature lead me to seek thy hand. I can retain my 
love, my obedience, my innocence, my nobler being only at thy side. 
Oh, sanction thou the transition from thy heart to this world ! Dear 
friend, I must cease, for my heart is moved, and I see tears in thy 
eyes. Farewell." 

It will be seen that Pestalozzi here alludes to the earliest develop- 
ment of the religious sentiment; but it must not be inferred that he 
was not also keenly alive to the influence of more advanced religious 
culture. The extracts from "Leonard and Gertrude," already quoted, 
show this. It is somewhat singular, however, that he seems to ignore 
the moral and religious influence of the father of the family. While 
we are ready to admit that the mother has the advantage in the de- 
velopment of the earliest religious impressions, which are based on 
love; yet the position of the father is peculiarly adapted to insure 
the development of reverence, duty, and obedience. 



APPLICATION OF PESTALOZZl'S METHOD. 191 

It is quite possible that this position resulted from observing how 
little interest the men in his time took in the moral welfare of their 
children. But, with all his omissions, it must be evident to every one 
that he intended to call the attention of the public to the necessity 
of connecting the principles of true religion with the love of the good, 
reverence for truth, and with the practice of duty toward God and 
man. 

Had we time and space it might be both interesting and profitable 
to notice the intimate connection between mental and moral develop- 
ment — how the moral sentiments are stimulated and strengthened by 
the free, natural development of the mental faculties. We can only 
briefly allude to some of the most prominent of these manifesta- 
tions. 

In Pestalozzi's school, it was a matter of surprise to all to witness 
the contentment and joyousness of the pupils while engaged in their 
most difficult work ; and the surprise was still greater when the spirit 
manifested was contrasted with that prevalent in the schools under 
the old system. The pupils evidently regarded the teachers as their 
confidants and friends instead of their natural enemies. 

The cause of this is clearly and forcibly stated by Morel 1 : " Mem- 
ory, or indeed any of the faculties, when properly developed, is drawn 
into the range of human duty. To overlook any engagement or to 
forget an obligation shows that there must be culpable neglect some- 
where — that the mind has failed to entertain such a sense of the 
value of human duty as to induce it to form a system of practical 
activity." This would indicate that the natural and harmonious 
working of the faculties produces a kind of honesty of feeling and 
conviction, in which the deceiving of others would be regarded as a 
self-deception. 

Corporal Punishment. — A marked feature in all true Pestalozzian 
schools is, the infrequency or entire absence of corporal punishment. 
This is the natural result of a system that provides for the physical, 
intellectual, and moral needs of the pupils, and where they may be 
said to learn to love while loving to learn. We would remark here 
in passing, that non-punishment is neither a law nor a principle of 
Pestalozzians, as is often erroneously believed. It is true that pun- 
ishments are of extremely rare occurrence ; but this is due to the 
fact that each child is kept busy in the performance of actions which 
tax his energies, while they are agreeable to his feelings. "To pre- 
vent or to expel an evil, there is no better way than to open the 
door by which good may flow in." The vital forces are so directed 



192 PESTALOZZI. 

into useful channels that happiness, as well as mental growth, is 
secured ; and there is little danger of the irregular overflow of spir- 
its, which is the occasion of most of the trouble experienced with 
children. With the exceptional cases where restraint becomes nec- 
essary, the punishment should he adapted to the nature of the 
offense ; such as, withdrawing privileges and abridging liberty, 
where they have been abused. 

Pestalozzi expresses his own views on this subject as follows: "Inter- 
est in study is the first thing which a teacher should endeavor to excite 
and keep alive. There are scarcely any circumstances where the want 
of application in children does not proceed from a want of interest; 
and there are, perhaps, none under which a want of interest does not 
originate in the mode of treatment adopted by the teacher. As a 
rule, when children are inattentive and apparently take no interest 
in a lesson, the teacher should always first look to himself for the 
reason. When a quantity of dry matter is before a child, when a 
child is doomed to listen in silence to lengthy explanations, or to go 
through exercises which have nothing in themselves to relieve or 
attract the mind, there is a tax upon the spirits, which a teacher 
should abstain from imposing. If, from the imperfection of his rea- 
soning powers, or his want of knowledge of facts, the child is not 
able to enter into the sense or follow the chain of ideas; if he is 
made to repeat what, to him, is sound without sense, it is not strange 
that he becomes restless and disobedient. When to this tedium, 
which is in itself punishment, fear is added, it becomes absolutely 
cruel. ........... 

I do not venture to assert that corporeal punishment is inadmissible, 
but I do object to its application, when the teacher or the method is In 
fault and not the children." 

With this we conclude our review of the method and principles 
advocated by Pestalozzi. We trust we have not fallen into the com- 
mon error of so exalting our subject as to be blind to the merits of 
other systems and their authors. We have endeavored to conduct 
our examinations with candor and fairness. Raumer says: "Pro- 
found thoughts, born of a holy love and under severe pain, are 
thoughts of eternal life, and, like love, shall never cease." It this be 
true, then the work of Pestalozzi, born of a charity and love for the 
poor and distressed, yet wide enough to include all mankind; nur- 
tured under suffering, disappointment, and martyrdom; and proclaim- 
ing profound and universal truths, must live to the end of all time, 
and he a blessing for all generations. 



Part v. 



SPREAD OF THE 



PESTALOZZIAN SYSTEM, 



P. 13. (193) 



C HAP T E R- I . 

SWITZERLAND. 

THAT the land which witnessed the experiments of the great 
school reformer, from their initiation to their ultimate triumph, 
should be the first to adopt his methods and to profit by the princi- 
ples which he established, would seem natural. This expectation 
is heightened when we know that Pestalozzi and his oldest and 
most honored associates were natives of this land, and that all stead- 
fastly refused the invitations of foreign princes and governments to 
leave the country of their birth. 

But great men do not always have the most influence in their own 
country. The saying of the Master, "A prophet is not without 
honor save in his own country," is often verified in the history of the 
world. There is always danger that the faults and weaknesses of a 
reformer, in his struggles with existing ideas and circumstances, will 
obscure, from the eyes of his immediate neighbors, the great principle 
which he seeks to establish. They see his ideas and plans through 
the distorted medium of prejudice or aversion ; and to them his 
whole work appears grotesque or unreal. On the contrary, those who 
commence their survey from a distance have their vision undisturbed 
by local and ephemeral causes, and are able to form a more just esti- 
mate of the value and importance of the truths enunciated. 

Again, ideas whose full realization are essential to future progress 
find root most readily in soil that has been best prepared for them. 
In this regard, Switzerland was undeniably far behind some of her 
more powerful and more fortunate neighbors ; and several causes con- 
spired to prevent the rapid spread of the new, progressive, and al- 
most revolutionary spirit. 

The greater part of the Swiss territory lies buried among the Alps; 
which, with the fact that its inhabitants in different cantons speak 
three different languages, makes even the interchange of ideas a mat- 
ter of difficulty. At the time of Pestalozzi, the people of the Catholic 
cantons were under a bigoted spiritual control, which discountenanced 

(195^ 



19(3 PESTALOZZI. 

progress or change of any kind. Even in the Protestant and most 
progressive cantons, the inhabitants of the rural districts and of the 
old city corporations were so conservative that they looked with sus- 
picion upon all efforts to change their old customs and institutions. 

Under these circumstances, is it a matter of wonder, that, while 
the schools founded by Pestalozzi at Burgdorf and Yverdon were 
receiving enthusiastic pupils from all parts of Europe, the govern- 
ments of Switzerland were slow to incorporate the new ideas into 
their systems of public instruction? The city of Zurich was an ex- 
ception to the general rule, and was the one truly progressive city 
among the Alps. It had already given birth and substantial aid to 
the great reformer, Zwingli, and to the philosophic Lavater ; and now 
it cordially welcomed and supported the ideas advanced by Pestalozzi. 

Among the men who, at an early period of Pestalozzi's labors, vis- 
ited Burgdorf, was Karl August Zeller of Wurtemberg. Inspired 
by the exercises which he witnessed, and filled with a fresh enthusi- 
asm for the cause of education, he resolved to put the new ideas into 
practical execution. His first experiments were made in the Charity 
School at Tubingen, in 1806, the report of which he gave in detail 
to that noble patroness of education, Princess Pauline of Detmold, 
of whom we shall hereafter speak. In the same year, at Zurich, he 
became acquainted with Senator Rusterholz, who had a scheme for 
establishing a Normal School for the benefit of the teachers of his 
canton. Zeller, to aid him in his work, gave three courses of lect- 
ures, which were largely attended by teachers and clergymen. 
Among these were a Catholic priest from Luzerne and three Canons 
from the convent of Kreuzlingen, who were sent there by Wessen- 
berg, the Bishop of Baden, a personal friend of Pestalozzi. One of 
these lectures was delivered before the Swiss Diet, which brought the 
subject prominently before the confederation. 

Subsequently Zeller spent some time with Pestalozzi at Yverdon, 
and afterward entered into the service of the king of Prussia. 

Owing to some statements derogatory to the credit of the Institution 
at Yverdon, the teachers in Pestalozzi's school, led by Niederer, peti- 
tioned the Diet, then assembled (May, 1809) at Friburg, to appoint 
a select committee to examine the principles and practical workings 
of the school and report upon the same. The request was granted, 
and Meriam of Basel, Trechsel, Professor of Mathematics at Berne, 
and the venerable Father Girard of Friburg, were commissioned to 
visit the school for that purpose. The visit lasted five days, and its 
result was embodied in a report, which was transmitted to the diet. 
The. report was so favorable to the principles' of Pestalozzi that an 



SWITZ ERLA XD. 1 97 

■official vote of thanks was unanimously accorded to him. It, how- 
ever, contained some criticism of details, of which his enemies took 
advantage. This caused a long and acrimonious discussion, in which 
Niederer took the leading part in defense of the school. We quote 
in full the concluding passages of this report: 

" The educational methods of the Institution stand in very imper- 
fect connection with our establishments for public instruction. The 
Institution has, in no way, aimed at establishing harmonious relations 
with these public schools. Determined, at any price, to awaken all 
the faculties of the children, in order to guide their development ac- 
cording to its own principles, it has taken counsel of its own views 
only, and betrays an irresistible desire to open for itself new paths, 
■even at the cost of never ti*eading in those which usage has estab- 
lished. This is, perhaps, the right way to arrive at useful discover- 
ies ; but it is also a course which renders harmony impossible. It is 
a pity that the force of circumstances has always driven Herr Pesta- 
lozzi beyond the career which his pure zeal and fervent charity have 
marked out for him. Good intention, noble endeavors, indefatigable 
perseverance, should meet, and always will meet, with justice. Let 
us profit by the excellent ideas which lie at the foundation of the 
"whole undertaking ; let us follow its instructive examples ; but let us 
also lament that an adverse fate must hang over the man who, by 
the forced of circumstances, is constantly hindered from doing what 
he would wish to do." 

This report describes the condition in which all Pestalozzian schools 
will be placed, whenever they are required to connect the results of 
their training which is based upon the principle of development, 
Avith those of one based upon mere mechanical routine. The idea 
that education consists exclusively in a knowledge of Reading, Writ- 
ing, Arithmetic, and the like, is much too narrow for the advocates 
of this educational reform. They can use the old materials of educa- 
tion, but only in a manner essentially new ; and they aim at making 
each lesson in school a step in the gradual unfolding of the mental 
forces. The apparent antagonism between the two systems can only 
be harmonized when the public generally possess broader and juster 
views of the aim of education, and when sufficient time has elapsed 
to judge each system by its results. 

In Switzerland, as in every other republic, the first impulses to any 
permanent reform have come from the people. The French Revolu- 
tion of July, 1830, roused the men of that country anew to examine 
questions of reform and progress. Up to that time they had been 
contented to live under their old aristocratic constitutions, which 



198 PESTALOZZI. 

only grudgingly recognized the rights of the common people. Then, 
however, a new era commenced, and education, especially, felt the 
benefit of the spirit which had been aroused. 

For many years, onerous and unfair taxes had been imposed; and 
the money collected, instead of being devoted to public use, had been 
hoarded for future contingencies. The reformers of that period saw 
clearly that the question of their liberties was intimately connected 
with universal education. They therefore devoted these accumulated 
funds, and money derived from a more equal system of taxation, to 
the formation of Normal Schools, High Schools, and other institu- 
tions of learning. From that time the vocation of the teacher has 
been more honored ; from that time the wealth, intelligence, and po- 
litical power of Switzerland have steadily increased to an extent 
which has made that country respected by other nations of Europe. 
Many of the Principals of the Normal Schools were chosen from the 
associates and pupils of Pestalozzi ; as, Kriisi, Tobler, Nabholz, 
Wehrli, and others, who possessed, to an eminent degree, the art of 
communicating knowledge. 

We must not conclude our survey of the development of the edu- 
cational spirit in Switzerland without alluding to the work accom- 
plished by Emanuel von Fellenberg, a friend and cotemporay of 
Pestalozzi. This distinguished educator was born at Berne, in 1771. 
His father was a senator, and his mother a daughter of the celebrated 
Dutch Admiral, Von Tromp. It was the teaching and example of this 
pure and devoted mother that inspired young Fellenberg to conse- 
crate his life to the improvement of the moral and social condition 
of his fellow-men. She went with him into the dwellings of the 
poor, in order to make him acquainted with their misery and wants ; 
she showed him the blessings of benevolence, when accompanied by 
kind words and sympathizing help. 

After having completed his college studies, and made his debut in 
the legislative assembly of his native canton, Fellenberg, in 1799, 
voluntarily resigned all expectations and honors from the political 
career which was opening before him ; 'and, stimulated by the ex- 
ample of Pestalozzi and by his own predilections, he resolved to estab- 
lish an Industrial School. He immediately bought two hundred acres 
of barren, uncultivated land at Wylhof, a great portion of which 
was a mere swamp. With the aid of young men from the lower 
classes, he began to convert this land into rich and productive fields. 
In spite of the sneers of his genteel friends, who wex'e shocked to see 
a scion of the aristocracy engaged in such low pursuits, he succeeded 
beyond his own expectations. By deep drainage, he converted the 



SWITZERLAND. 199 

portion of his farm next the river into good pasture land, while the 
arable soil was constantly improved. In a few years a rich growth 
of wheat, flax, hemp, etc., waved over the former wilderness. By 
an inversion of the original name, as if to designate the change 
which had taken place, he called the farm "Hofwyl." The result 
obtained encouraged him to enlarge the accommodations of his agri- 
cultural school; and, aware that the expenses of this department 
would at first exceed his income, he wisely founded a scientific 
course for the sons of the wealthier classes, who could afford to pay 
liberally for their tuition. He thus carried on a twofold enterprise 
with an administrative power and skill which prevented him from 
committing the mistakes of Pestalozzi, who had been ruined by a 
similar undertaking. 

At the head of the argicultural department, he placed Wehrli, a 
man of great originality and simplicity of character, to whose kind 
and intelligent treatment of the pupils much of the success is to be 
attributed. The pupils did not belong to the dregs of society, which 
in this country fill our so-called Reform Schools; but were mostly 
sons of farmers or of business men, who wished their sons to become 
acquainted with the details of agriculture without neglecting their 
other studies. Although not more than half the elder pupils paid 
board, Fellenberg suffered no loss thereby. He proved successfully, 
that pupils who enter such an institution at the age of ten years, 
and remain there till they are twenty, can, by their work alone, de- 
fray the expenses for board, clothing, and tuition, and at the same 
time learn a useful vocation. More than this, he showed how such 
schools may be made self-supporting, and demonstrated that agricul- 
ture is eminently adapted, in its various bearings and applications, 
to develop the noblest powers of man. He increased his farm to six 
hundred acres, and the erection of new and tasteful buildings gave to 
Hofwyl the appearance of a small flourishing town ; and it had all 
arisen through the genius of one man. Thence issued improvements 
in the implements and methods of agriculture. The introduction of 
new seeds and plants, as well as the improvement of existing species, 
became of great importance, and thereby the whole community was 
ultimately benefited. 

During forty-five years, assisted by his sons and daughters, Fellen- 
berg carried on his school, until, in 1H44, he was called to his final 
rest. 

This Institution, like that of Pestalozzi, attracted the attention of 
governments and individuals, and received patronage from nearly 
every country in Europe. The greatest benefit derived from these 



200 PESTALOZZI. 

labors of Fellenberg and Wehrli lies in the solution of that question, 
what shall be done with the young inmates of poor and work-houses, 
and with neglected children every- where? They have shown that 
this class of unfortunates may be separated from their older and 
more wicked associates, and put under the care of humane and prac- 
tical teachers, who will attend to their physical, intellectual, and 
moral wants. The most important part of this system of education 
is, that they are taught early to devote a portion of their time to 
physical labor, and that during school life they also learn a trade, 
which will secure to them an independent means of support in after 
life. The kind of occupation to which each shall give especial atten- 
tion should be determined by his own natural aptitude and liking. 

The experiments instituted by Fellenberg, and their marked success, 
led to the establishment of similar schools in other countries. To 
this origin may be traced the Poor, Industrial, and Reform Schools 
of the various countries of Europe and of the United States. 

The first idea of establishing schools of this kind belongs to Pesta- 
lozzi; but it was Fellenberg who first proved that such a school 
could be self-supporting. Their work was not antagonistic, but rather 
complementary. Each performed a necessary part in the great plan 
of education. 

" Pestalozzi's principal work," says Biber, "was to foster the inter- 
nal growth of the intellectual and moral man. He asked, not for 
what society, but for what God had destined the child. The position 
of each pupil in his establishment was accordingly founded, not upon 
the artificial institutions of society, but upon the spirit of freedom 
and brotherly love." 

Fellenberg, on the contrary, endeavored to trace the shortest and 
most efficient way for rendering his pupils fit members of society. 
The education they received was a practical one: every child was 
placed in his establishment exactly in that rank in which he would 
hereafter have to appear in life. 

If these principles seem antagonistic it is in form rather than in 
substance. If a child, up to a certain age, has received a fair and 
complete education according to Pestalozzi's principles, he may then 
well turn his attention to the practical wants of society, and to the 
rank and position which birth or circumstances have assigned him. 
However, we can not deny that there was something antagonistic in 
the characters of these two men, which more than once prevented 
their closer intimacy. Fellenberg, although superior in practical 
energy and learning, and guided by excellent motives, did not pos- 
sess that delicacy of sentiment, that overflowing fullness of feeling, 



.SWITZERLAND. 201 

which induced Pestalozzi to sacrifice himself and all he possessed for 
the interests of a great cause. Perhaps from early associations Fel- 
lenberg preserved a certain love of command, of power, and, conse- 
quently, of self, which, while it may conduce to secure organization, 
obedience, and regularity, is little fitted to the details of teaching the 
young, and often wounds or destroys the susceptibilities of those who 
come under its influence. 

He, therefore, possessed few intimate friends, while Pestalozzi was 
beloved by all, and almost worshiped by some. The one died rich ; 
the other struggled against poverty all his life. The names of both 
will be honored in the annals of history ; for both have left living 
monuments in the millions of children who, by their work and ex- 
ample, have been saved from physical, moral, and intellectual star- 
vation. 



C H A P T E K I I . 

GERMANY. 

ALTHOUGH in Germany the form of government is monarch- 
ical, we find, as in a republic, that all reforms are first intro- 
duced by the private acts of noble-minded and enthusiastic thinkers. 
But, while in a republic the mere ideas are left to make their own 
way, slowly and painfully combating error, in a monarchy as soon as 
they are recognized as conducive to the best interest of the nation, 
they may be adopted by the government, and immediately reduced 
to practical use. In the centralized governments, unity and harmony 
of action can be secured at once ; and it is quite possible to arrive 
at satisfactory results sooner than by the isolated efforts of private 
individuals and corporations. It may be questioned, however, whether 
the greater freedom and slower growth will not, in the end, produce 
a more healthful and symmetrical development. 

The connection of the educational reform in Germany with the 
original undertaking of Pestalozzi can only be distinctly shown by 
a description of the work which was accomplished by private 
individuals and by the Government. Prominent among the earlier 
educational missionaries, who were instrumental in disseminating Pes- 
talozzian principles in Germany, were Johann Ernst Plamann and 
Karl August Zeller, the latter of whom we have already noticed in 
connection with the reform in Switzerland. Both of these men visited 
Burgdorf in 1803, attracted thither by Pestalozzi's writings and the 
fame of his school. 

After leaving Burgdorf, Plamann engaged in several educational 
enterprises; but he finally went to Berlin, where he established an 
Institution, which soon obtained a wide celebrity, and became a cen- 
ter for the dissemination of the new methods. His success was in- 
strumental in determining the subsequent action of the Prussian Gov- 
ernment in this matter. He published several works, showing the 
application of Pestalozzi's principles to Language, Geography, and 
Natural History. 
(202) 



GERMANY. 203 

Zeller delivered a course of lectures before the students of the 
Agricultural School at Hofwyl, under the charge of Von Fellenberg. 
The King of Wiirtemberg, while passing through Hofwyl, listened 
to these lectures, and was so delighted with them that he offered 
to him the position of school inspector at Heilbronn. While he 
was considering this proposition, overtures were made him by Von 
Schroter, the Prussian Minister of State, and a situation was offered, 
which he finally accepted. He was sent to Konigsberg, where 
he gave several courses of lectures to assemblages of teachers, clergy- 
men, and superintendents. He succeeded in arousing an intense 
interest in the cause of education in a part of the Kingdom where 
little had before been done in this direction. He was afterward 
commissioned to organize the Orphan Asylum at Konigsberg ; and 
his labors in this Institution were crowned with such marked suc- 
cess, from the improved methods which he introduced, that he at- 
tracted the attention of educators from every part of the Kingdom. 
In 1809, the King, Queen, and Minister of State visited the school 
in person, and were so well pleased, that Zeller received the hon- 
orary title, " Schoolrath," — Counselor of Schools. 

Among the German States, the Kingdom of Wiirtemberg, in civil- 
ization and social progress, ranks next after Prussia. To Gottlieb 
Denzel, this state owes a debt of gratitude for the introduction of 
Pestalozzian principles and a thorough reform of the schools. In 
order to make himself familiar with the system of Pestalozzi, he 
visited both Burgdorf and Yverdon. In 1811, he was appointed 
Principal of the Normal School at Esslingen, and he presided over 
this school for nearly twenty years with eminent success. By his 
numerous writings on educational topics, his influence was extended 
to other states. In 1817, he assisted in organizing the school system 
of the Duchy of Nassau, and in establishing a Normal Seminary at 
Idstein. 

The educational movement, of which the work of these men 
formed a part, was not the result of the slow and deliberate inves- 
tigations of a period of peace ; but was conceived and carried out 
amidst the din of arms, and during those great conflicts which shook 
Europe to its center. The battle of Jena, which reduced the Prussian 
monarchy, was fought in 1806 ; and for several years the domination 
of Bonaparte in Germany was nearly absolute. The humiliation of 
the Germans was complete. Their military posts were in the hands 
of the conqueror. The only portion of government left to them was 
the control of such civil and municipal affairs as were thought not 
to interfere, in any manner, with military matters. National hide- 



:204 PESTALOZZI. 

pendenee was at an end ; but national life was still undiminished in 
vitality, and, amidst the wrecks of the old governments, the seeds of 
national reconstruction took vigorous root. 

During this dreary period of subjugation, political apathy, and de- 
spair, the minds of the ablest and best of the German philosophers 
and statesmen were engaged in devising means which should com- 
mence the work or raising the physical, mental,, 'and moral character 
of the people, so that in future struggles they might command 
success. 

The plans of these men for national regeneration were at first con- 
sidered as chimeras of the imagination ; but as they were boldly set 
forth and fortified by illustration and argument, they finally took a 
strong hold of the public mind. The philosopher Ficlite, in a public 
lecture at Berlin, promised deliverance to the Germans through 
national education, which he considered would be the commence- 
ment of an entire reformation of the human race, enabling the spirit to 
obtain a complete mastery over the flesh. To the question, to which 
of the existing institutions of the actual world he would give the duty 
of carrying out this new plan of education, Fichte answered: "To 
the course of instruction which has been invented by Henry Pesta- 
lozzi, and which is now successfully carried out under his direction." 
"Would that the State," he said to a Prussian audience, in which 
were several high officers of state, " could look its present peculiar 
position steadily in the face, and acknowledge to itself what that posi- 
tion really is: would that it could clearly perceive that there re- 
mains for it no sphere in which it can act and resolve as an independ- 
ent State except that of education ; that this is all it can do, and the 
merit of doing this would be conceded to it undiminished and unen- 
vied. That we are no longer able to offer an active resistance is ob- 
vious and acknowledged by every one. How, then, can we defend 
our national existence against the reproach of cowardice and an un- 
worthy love of life? In no other way than by resolving not to live 
for ourselves, and by acting up to this resolution ; by raising up a 
worthy posterity, and by preserving our own existence in order to 
accomplish this object. Our constitutions are made for us; the alli- 
ances which we are to form, and the direction to which our military 
resources are to be applied, are indicated to us ; a statute book is 
lent to us; even the administration of justice is sometimes taken out 
of our hands; and we shall be relieved from all these things for 
several years. 

"Education alone has not been thought of. If we are seeking for 
an occupation, let us seize this; for we may expect that in this we 



GERMANY. 205 

shall be left undisturbed. I hope — perhaps I deceive myself, but as 
I have only this hope to live for, I can not relinquish it — that I 
shall convince some Germans, and lead them to see, that it is educa- 
tion alone which can save us from all the evils by which we are op-, 
pressed. 

" It is a favorable circumstance, that our need will have rendered 
us more disposed to attentive observation and serious reflection than 
we were in the days of our prosperity. Foreign lands have other 
consolation and other remedies. It is not to be expected, that they 
will pay any attention, or give any credit, to this idea, should it ever 
reach them. I will rather hope, that it will be a rich source of 
amusement to the readers of their journals, if they ever learn, that 
any one promises himself so great things from education." 

A letter written to Pestalozzi in 1808, by Nicolovius, Prussian 
Minister of Education, indicates that he, too, was looking to educa- 
tion for the means of national regeneration. "At last, my venerable, 
unforgotten friend, I have the pleasure of seeing some rays of thy 
light penetrate into the schools of my fatherland.* What I have 
dreamed at thy side, what we have discussed in letters, will soon 
become realized as a work of absolute necessity. With us also the 
destructive march of events has ruined every thing, yet courageous 
men are bent upon reconstruction, taking care that the new order of 
things does not become worse than the old. Oh, help us to foster 
the work which thou hast founded ! 

"The grain of seed shall become a tree under whose shade the 
people will rest. Thy friendship is sacred to me, and the days I have 
passed with thee have the same influence upon me which a pious 
pilgrimage has upon the mind of a believer. May thy life be spared 
in order to complete thy work as far as possible." 

To further show how deeply the principles of Pestalozzi had taken 
hold of the German mind, in this, the hour of its deepest affliction, 
and how even the hereditary rulers turned instinctively to the humble 
republican school-master for aid, we here copy portions of a letter 
of the Princess Pauline of Detmold to Pestalozzi: .... 

" I have since 
received the second letter and pamphlet which you had the kindness 
to write in answer to my questions. I never would have believed, 
that some hasty lines, could give rise to a little work of such decided 
merit. Genius requires but a spark in order to kindle a clear/ pure, 
and warmth-giving flame. I confess that your Compte Rendu (School 



Referring to the work of Planiann .before mentioned. 



206 PESTALOZZI. 

Report) has interested me more than the account of the finances of 
all the empires in Europe. You have accomplished a great, great 
work. The knowledge of this will hover around you like a friendly 
angel; and if your life should become clouded, then think of all the 
teachers and pupils who have become better and more useful through 
your example. Thus happiness will be diffused around yoitr waning 
life, and the tear of grief will turn into a tear of joy. Alas! how 
rarely do we find in these selfish times an enthusiasm for things 
which only the future can bring to maturity. .... 

I think of you as the educational Howard of Switzerland — not 
belonging to one canton alone, but esteemed and sought throughout 
the world, and claimed also by my little State. 

" Believe always in the unchangeable esteem of your faithful 

" Pauline." 

The enthusiasm of the Germans for the new principles was not con- 
fined to school-teachers, officers of state, and princes; but it was also 
shared by men of science, who were the acknowledged leaders of 
thought in their respective fields of labor. Prominent among these 
was Karl Putter, a man whom the world delights to honor as the 
"Father of Physical Geography." Previous to his acquaintance with 
Pestalozzi, Putter had acquired a high reputation as a teacher and a 
man of science, and it might naturally be supposed that the philos- 
opher, versed in all the erudition of the schools, could impart to the 
comparatively illiterate school-master more than he could receive 
from him. The testimony of Ritter himself is, however, conclusive 
on these points, as he expresses his indebtedness to Pestalozzi in no 
ambiguous terms. The following was written by him soon after his 
visit to Burgdorf : " I can not cross the Rhine, your noble boundary, 
without casting back a look of regret, as well as pleasure, toward the 
place which I consider as a second home. I can not tear myself 
away from the mountain scenery of Helvetia, without devoting to 
thee, O Father Pestalozzi ! a silent tear. Oh, may it tell how deeply 
I feel what thou art to humanity ! How could I ever forget the time 
I have spent amidst thy new creations! Even had I gained nothing 
by it, but a renewed faith in humanity, I would consider myself 
amply repaid; for it gives me strength for my future researches. 
My ardent desire to see the champion and martyr for truth and love, 
and to be refreshed at the living source of his life and example, has 
been granted ; and more than that, I have felt his love, and I return 
with enlarged feeling into the cold vortex of life. I thank thee, 
venerable father, for thy affection. It has taught me a warmer and 



GERMANY. 207 

purer love ; it has strengthened my arm for the struggle with the 
world, which every one, to whom life is more than death, must un- 
dergo. I have recognized in thee that pure love of Christ which 
warms the soul, whilst the vitality of thy ideas enlightens the mind. 
Nevertheless, I am sorry to say that, on the whole, the world does 
not yet seem ripe for thy work ; for men rarely cherish ideas, but 
rather theories wherein they seek their ideal. Your method has un- 
doubtedly also its ideal, but its law is (me of necessity and not of 
fancy. To arrive at this conviction requires either a mind which 
descends into its own depths, or a faith which is able to remove 
mountains, or a happy mortal who has had the privilege of spending 
a year with Pestalozzi and his friends. But blind humanity passes 
by this law, which is great because simple, till a Newton shows its 
application in mathematical science; a Lavoisier, through the maze 
of experimental philosophy; and a Pestalozzi, in the wider field of 
human development. 

"I embrace thee respectfully, as a child embraces his father; and 
hope to be remembered by thee even at a distance. 

"Basel, 1808. Thy Ritter." 

In another letter, written from Berlin, Ritter dwells upon his re- 
peated but unsuccessful attempts to see Humboldt, who had just re- 
turned from his tour in America, and to whom he wished to commu- 
nicate Pestalozzi's ideas, which he thought could even influence the 
vast and comprehensive mind of that great philosopher of nature. 
Drawing a parallel between these two men, Ritter says : " Humboldt 
explored the greatest depths as well as the most prominent heights of 
our globe ; he viewed it in all its mathematical, physical, and chem- 
ical relations ; he even went round it in order to make himself ac- 
quainted with all the possible forms of nature, and to find the law by 
which all the phenomena are linked together. He is a genius in the 
inductive method of proceeding from the external to the internal ; 
while Pestalozzi arrives at that law by a deduction from the internal 
to the external. Humboldt is a noble man, and although some jeal- 
ousy might arise in seeing two men arrive at the same result in op- 
posite ways, yet I am sure he would be greatly pleased to take notice 
of the vast bearing of Pestalozzi's ideas." 

In 180S, through the intercession and influence of Queen Louisa, 
the Prussian Government sent twelve young men to Yverdon to be- 
come acquainted with the details of Pestalozzi's principles and meth- 
ods, so that they might be introduced more rapidly into the Prussian 
schools. The students were selected with great care by Suvern, 



208 PESTALOZZI. 

Minister of Education, and before their departure he addressed them 
upon the subject of their mission. In this address he told them: 
" The object in sending- yon to Pestalozzi is, not merely that you 
may study the external or formal part of this system, or to acquire 
skill in teaching, but that you may warm yourselves at the sacred 
fire which is glowing in the bosom of that man, who is full of power 
and love; that you may walk with a similar spirit in the path of 
truth and in the observation of the laws of nature ; that you may 
become simple as children, in order to obtain the key with which to 
open the sacred temple of childhood; that you may never forget, 
that a knowledge of the elementary part of each science is the most 
difficult to obtain, since it requires a thorough perception of the 
reality of things ; that the characteristic feature of the Pestalozzian 
method is the fact of its being equally adapted for scientific research 
and for popular application, since it does not spoil the desire for 
knowledge by light and unwholesome food, but strengthens it by 
vigorous nourishment." 

These students made excellent use of their time at Yverdon, and 
upon their return to Prussia they amply repaid their country for 
benefits received by giving it better instruction. Among them were 
Harnisch, Henning, Dreist, and Kawerau, who did excellent service 
as Principals of Normal and other schools. 

By these means the schools of Germany were speedily organized 
upon a new basis, and the thrill of a new, vigorous life was felt 
from one extremity of the land to the other. Napoleon, in the pride 
and insolence of his power, scornfully turned from the philanthropist, 
who pleaded for philosophic and universal education, saying: "I have 
no time now to occupy myself with the A, B, C." 

Germany, prostrate beneath the heel of the conqueror, adopted the 
principles so ignominiously spurned, and "The stone which the build- 
ers rejected" became the head-stone of the corner. Sixty years have 
passed away, and Germany, vital with life and energy in every part, 
once more grapples with her great adversary. In one short, sharp, 
and decisive campaign, the military power which for nearly a 
century had been the terror of Europe is broken; and the discovery 
is made that much within the outer crust is hollow, and that neglect 
of the elements of knowledge deprives a nation of the essential con- 
ditions of true greatness and power. When an American asked Von 
Moltke what was the most formidable weapon upon which Germany 
relied for her offensive movements, he answered by pointing to a 
common soldier, drawing a map of France upon the table before 
him. In this last great conflict, we see that the influence proceeding 



GERMANY. 209 

from the seemingly impracticable dreamer of Neuhof has been suffi- 
cient to reverse the current of defeat and change the balance of 
power in Europe. 

When the arrogance of Schmid caused the resignation of the 
German teachers, they found immediate employment in different 
parts of Germany ; and thus the destruction of the school at Yver- 
don caused a wider dissemination of Pestalozzian methods than could 
have been accomplished in any other manner. Among these teach- 
ers who became famous in their native land were Doctor Blochmann, 
the director of a large school at Dresden ; Nabholz, principal of a 
Normal School and an enlightened Catholic, who espoused with his 
whole heart these and other liberal and progressive ideas ; Ladomus, 
Schacht, and Steiner, mathematicians, who were not only teachers, 
but discoverers in their respective branches. 

Some years ago, in his travels through Germany, the author 
formed an acquaintance with many of these men, who were then 
holding important situations ; and their invariable testimony was, 
that they considered their success as teachers and educators to be 
chiefly, if not entirely, due to the new and enlarged ideas in regard 
to the nature of education which they received during their stay 
with Pestalozzi, and to the spirit and enthusiasm which they imbibed 
in his school. 

We will conclude our summary of the men, who introduced the 
method of Pestalozzi into Germany, with a notice of the work of 
the eminent educator, Von Turk. His labors in the cause of hu- 
manity have been of such marked character that the}' deserve 
more than a passing notice ; and we are fortunate in being able to 
lay before our readers an account of them from the pen of Horace 
Mann, who visited him in 1848 : 

"At the head of a private Orphan Asylum in Potsdam is 
the venerable Von Turk. According to the laws of the country, he 
is a nobleman. His talents and acquisitions w 7 ere such, that at a 
very early age he was elevated to the Bench. He officiated as judge 
for fourteen years; but, in the course of time, so many criminal 
cases Avere brought before him for adjudication, whose only origin 
was so plainly referable to early neglect in the culprits' education, 
that the noble heart of the judge could no longer bear to pronounce 
sentence of condemnation against the prisoners ; for he looked upon 
them as men, who, almost without a paradox, might be called 
'guiltless offenders.' 

"While holding the office of judge, he was appointed school -in- 
P. 11. 



210 PESTALOZZI. 

spector. The paramount importance of the latter office grew upon 
his mind, as he executed its duties, until at last he came to the full 
conception of the grand and sacred truth : how much more intrin- 
sically honorable is the vocation of the teacher, who saves from 
crime and wrong, than that of the magistrate, who waits till they 
are committed and then avenges them. 

" He immediately resigned his office of judge, with its life tenure 
and salary ; traveled to Switzerland, where he placed himself under 
the care of Pestalozzi ; and after availing himself for three years of 
the instruction of that celebrated teacher, he returned to take charge 
of an Orphan Asylum. Since that time he has devoted his whole 
life to the care of the neglected and destitute. He lives in a plain 
and inexpensive style like our well-to-do farmers and mechanics, and 
devotes his income to the welfare of the needy. I was told by his 
personal friends, that he not only deprived himself of the luxuries of 
life, but submitted to many privations in order to appropriate his 
small income to others whom he considered more needy than himself; 
and that his wife and family cheerfully shared in his privations for 
the same object. To what extent would our own community sympa- 
thize with or appreciate the act, if one of the judges of our higher 
courts should resign an office of honor and profit, to become the 
instructor of children? 

" Even now, in 1843, when the once active and vigorous frame is 
bending beneath the weight of years, he employs himself in teach- 
ing agriculture, together with the branches commonly taught in 
Prussian schools, to a class of orphan boys. What warrior, who 
rests at last from the labors of the tented field after a victorious 
life ; what statesman, whose name is familiar in all the courts of the 
civilized world ; what orator, who attracts toward himself tides of 
men wherever he may move in his splendid course — what one of all 
these woidd not, at the sunset of life, exchange his fame and his 
clustering honors for that precious and abounding treasury of holy 
and beneficent deeds, the remembrance of which this good old man 
is about to carry into the other world? Do we not need a new 
spirit in our community, and especially in our schools, which shall 
display only objects of virtuous ambition before the eyes of our em- 
ulous youth; and teach them, that no height of official station nor 
splendor of professional renown can equal, in the eye of Heaven and 
of all good men, the true glory of a life consecrated to the welfare 
of mankind ? " 

A work upon the present condition of the schools of Prussia by 
Dr. Ilarnish mentions the visits of Victor Cousin, Kay, Shuttleworth, 



GERMANY. 211 

Horace Mann, and Professors Bache and Stowe, as indicating a new 
era in the history of civilization. These men, representatives of the 
most enlightened nations of the world, unanimously report that in 
Germany they found a system of schools most worthy of imitation ; 
and a large share of this excellence they attribute to the impulse 
given them by the principles of Pestalozzi. 

A question of great interest, and now often asked, is, " How far do 
the German schools deserve the name Pestalozzian ? " A brief sur- 
vey of the field will afford a sufficient answer. In the Elementary 
and Normal Schools the methods of Pestalozzi are generally adopted, 
though they have undergone various modifications to suit the spirit 
of the times and the advancing intelligence of the age. The Uni- 
versities, Military Schools, and Gymnasiums have felt the impulse 
of the great reform principally in the superior teachers which have 
since been employed. 

It matters little whether the name Pestalozzian is still used or has 
been merged into one of wider application, adapted to the require- 
ments of the age : the principles remain the same, and to these princi- 
ples the German schools of to-day owe a large share of their reputa- 
tion and excellence. 

The centennial anniversary of the birthday of Pestalozzi was cele- 
brated throughout Germany and Switzerland on the 12th of January, 
1846. Thousands of teachers assembled at various educational centers 
to listen to the story of the great reformer from the lips of his pupils 
and friends, who were then the honored and acknowledged leaders of 
educational movements. In many places the schools were closed, and 
the bells rung as in commemoration of some event of national im- 
portance, and, at the same time, very dear to the hearts of the peo- 
ple. 

The spontaneous gatherings of teachers and friends of education, so 
universal throughout the land, was a higher testimony of the estima- 
tion in which he was held than even the eulogies so lavishly bestowed 
by his friends. A remarkable feature of the day was the endeavor 
to raise a large sum by subscription as a memorial fund — not for 
the purpose of erecting a monument of stone or brass, but for found- 
ing asylums for orphans and friendless children. In several places 
this philanthropic scheme was carried into successful execution, show- 
ing that the spirit which animated Pestalozzi in his lonely struggles 
with poverty at Neuhof was still vital in the hearts of his disciples 
and successors. 

To those who object to these methods on account of their source, 



212 PESTALOZZI. 

Ave recommend the following extract from the report of Horace Mann : 
"If the Prussian school-master has better methods of teaching Read- 
ing, Writing, Grammar, and Arithmetic, so that in half the time he 
produces greater and better results, surely we may adopt his modes 
of teaching these elements, without adopting his notion of passive 
obedience to government. By the ordinance of nature, the human 
faculties are substantially the same all over the world; and hence, 
the best means for their development and growth in one place must 
be substantially the best for their development and growth elsewhere. 
If a moral power over the affections and understandings of the peo- 
ple may be turned to evil, may it not also be employed for the high- 
est good ? A generous and impartial mind does not ask whence a thing 
comes, but what it is. Those who, at the present day, would reject an 
improvement because of the place of its origin, belong to the same 
school of bigotry with those who inquired if any good could come out 
of Nazareth ; and what infinite blessings would the world have lost 
had that party been punished by success." 



CHAPTER III. 
FRANCE, SPAIN, AND RUSSIA. 

IT may be true, indeed, that a natural method of instruction 
is not limited to any climate, nationality, creed, or language, 
and that human nature is essentially the same every-where, and 
follows the same laws of development ; yet it is equally true that 
these conditions may greatly accelerate or retard the full ajipreciation 
and adoption of the true method. It is obvious that Pestalozzi and 
his principal associates had a much greater personal influence in 
Switzerland and Germany than elsewhere. They were all Swiss by 
birth, inheriting the peculiarities of that nation; and since all spoke 
the German language, their ideas spread rapidly wherever that lan- 
guage was spoken. The system, whose seeds were the fruits of Ger- 
man culture, took deep root in German soil, and grew to fair pro- 
portions. 

In France, however, the conditions were quite different. Another 
language was spoken, and, at the time when Pestalozzi was developing 
his system, the military spirit so overshadowed every other interest 
that there was little opportunity for the spread of ideas which had for 
their object "peace and good-will to all men." The despotism, which 
claimed and enforced the right to control the actions of the people in 
all particulars, produced a general apathy in regard to matters of ed- 
ucation. When the reaction took place, and France, exhausted and 
nearly impoverished by war, commenced anew a career of peace, her 
primary schools, unfortunately, were placed under ecclesiastical control, 
and did not attain a high reputation, or exert a healthful influence 
upon the character of the people. The warfare between freedom 
and ecclesiasticism, in regard to the control and management of the 
schools, is still going on ; but there are signs that regenerated France 
will burst the fetters which have so long bound her hand and foot, 
and will enter a new career of progress, in which education, based 
upon the laws of human development, shall be universal and free. 

If a history of science should be written, France would have a 

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214 PESTALOZZI. 

noble record, since in many of its departments she has led the world ; 
and it is only since the commencement of the present century that in 
her primary instruction she has fallen behind her great rival, Ger- 
many. In this work, however, we have only to show how far the 
ideas of Pestalozzi penetrated this country, and what was their effect 
upon the schools. 

His work was entirely neglected by the Government, but received 
some attention from private individuals in that country. General 
Julien, a companion of Bonaparte in the campaign of Egypt, came to 
Yverdon, and studied the methods practiced there. After a full in- 
vestigation, he gave the results to the French public in two com- 
mendatory reports entitled Esprit de la Methode d'Education de Pesta- 
lozzi, and Precis de I'Imtitut cV Yverdon en Suisse. Through the influ- 
ence of these reports, thirty pupils went from France to Yverdon. 
Whether the establishment of the first French Normal School at 
Strasburg, in 1810, was a result of this action, we are unable to tell. 
We know, however, that the idea of training teachers for their voca- 
tion, which was so ardently entertained by Pestalozzi, has been 
made a part of the educational system of France, through the influ- 
ence of Victor Cousin and M. Guizot, both eminent scholars and 
statesmen. 

Neither the Napoleonic code for the schools, with its centralizing 
tendencies, nor the reactionary doings of the Bourbons, who came 
after, had, in any way, been successful in elevating the moral and 
intellectual standard of schools and of their teachers. After the 
despotism of Charles X. was ended, in 1830, a more intelligent spirit 
was manifested in regard to matters of education, and Victor Cousin 
was appointed Minister of Public Instruction. He first made him- 
self acquainted Avith the best school systems of Europe, giving an ex- 
tensive examination to the schools of Prussia ; while his colleague, 
M. Cuvier, visited those of Holland, most of which had been organ- 
ized substantially upon Pestalozzian principles. 

Cousin's report abounds in important and practical suggestions. 
He found the schools of Germany so superior to those of France, 
that he recommended a reconstruction on German models. Thus 
we see that France, thirty years after rejecting the principles offered 
by her nearest neighbor, Switzerland, was obliged to obtain the same 
at second hand, through Germany. 

The close of this report seems like an apology for studying the 
school system of a rival nation: "I have now arrived at the 
termination of this long report. May it be of use to you in 
the important work which now engages your attention. My illus- 



FRANCE, SPAIN, AND RUSSIA. 215 

trious colleague, M. Cuvier, has already presented to France the plan 
of primary instruction in Holland. The experience of Germany, 
and particularly of Prussia, ought not to be lost upon us. National 
rivalries or antipathies would here be completely out of place. The 
true greatness of a people does not consist in borrowing nothing from 
others ; but in borrowing from all whatever is good, and in perfecting 
whatever it appropriates. I am as great an enemy as any one to 
artificial imitations; but it is mere pusillanimity to reject a thing for 
no other reason than that it has been thought good by others. With 
the promptitude and justness of the French mind, and the inde- 
structible unity of our national character, we may assimilate all that 
is good in other countries without fear of ceasing to be ourselves. 
Placed in the center of Europe, possessing every variety of climate, 
bordering on civilized nations, and holding perpetual intei*course with 
them, France is essentially cosmopolitan ; and this is the main source 
of her gx*eat influence. Besides, civilized Europe now forms one 
great family. We constantly imitate England in all that concerns 
outward life, the mechanical arts, and physical refinements. Why, 
then, should we blush to borrow something from kind, honest, pious, 
learned Germany in what regards inward life and the nurture of the 
soul?" 

The just and intelligent system advocated by Cousin was only 
partly carried into execution ; and primary education in France never 
received as much attention as in Germany. 

Cousin's great successor, Guizot, endeavored to perfect the system 
which was so ably commenced. In one of his addresses to the school 
directors of France, we find the following passage, which not only 
contains excellent advice, but breathes the very spirit which animated 
Pestalozzi : 

"It can not be too often repeated, that it is the master who makes 
the school; and, indeed, what a well assorted union of qualities is 
required to constitute a good school-master ! He ought to know much 
more than he is called upon to teach, that he may teach with intel- 
ligence and with taste. Though he lives in a humble sphere, he 
should have a noble and devoted mind, that he may preserve a dig- 
nity of sentiment and deportment, without which, he will never ob- 
tain the respect and confidence of patrons and pupils. He should 
possess a rare mixture of gentleness and firmness ; for, inferior though 
he be in station to manv individuals in the community, he ought to be 
the obsequious servant of none. He should be a man, not ignorant 
of his rights, but thinking much more of his duties, showing all a 
good example, and serving all as counselor — a man not given to 



216 PESTALOZZI. 

change his condition, but satisfied with his situation because it gives 
him power to do good. To educate teachers to such a model is a 
difficult task, and yet Ave must succeed in it if we would do any 
thing for elementary instruction." 

It would scarcely be necessary to mention Spain in connection with 
the spread of the new educational ideas, were it not for the fact that, 
in 1806, the Institution at Yverdon received a number of pupils 
from Spain, who were sent thither by the Government through the 
instigation of the King, and by the influence of his all-powerful 
favorite, Godoy, Prince of Peace. The English and Spanish histori- 
ans have represented this latter personage as devoid of virtue and 
intelligence, and as the embodiment of wickedness and hypocrisy. 
That he was hated by the priests and common people, on account 
of his favoring the French cause, is beyond all doubt ; and that, by 
his lively interest in education, he rendered himself still more ob- 
noxious to the Jesuits is very probable. The following letters, 
written to Pestalozzi, show that he favored an educational reform 
as a remedy for the evils, ignorance, and superstition, with which 
this unhappy country was afflicted : 

"Madrid, 28th July, 1807. 

" I have received with much pleasure your letter of the first 
of this month ; and its perusal has produced in me the same sen- 
timents which the name of the benevolent Pestalozzi and his be- 
loved cause have always excited. Childhood has always inspired me 
with interest and tenderness, and this sentiment has contributed to 
sweeten my troubles and to relieve my cares ; but the Pestalozzian 
childhood has given me moments of joy and has excited in me feel- 
ings of admiration that can not be better expressed than by what I 
have done in favor of the method. I have ahvays contemplated with 
lively pleasure the children who have been educated according to this 
system, and have received with emotion the expressions of gratitude 
from their parents and themselves. I have presented to His Majesty 
three young Pestalozzians, who have given incontestable proofs of 
their astonishing progress and of the excellence of the new method. 
Your arithmetical tables are already an ornament in the cabinet of 
the Prince Royal, who is being educated according to the philosophic, 
solid, and sublime principles of the Regenerator of childhood. Not- 
withstanding all I have done in favor of the new method and for 
the renown of its respected founder, my heart is not yet satisfied ; 
and I am looking out for a fresh opportunity to show my esteem and 
constancy in their behalf. The Pestalozzian Royal Military School 



FRANCE, SPAIN, AND RUSSIA. 217 

has had its detractors, as is the case with all new and useful estab- 
lishments — for the number of the ignorant is always greater than 
the number of the wise; but they have not dared to raise their 
heads, for they have not found any cause for which to attack the 
new system, and nobody has appeared on the arena to combat it pub- 
licly. The Commissioners of Inspection have made their last report. 
It is impartial, and worthy of the illustrious members who composed 
it, and also of the glory of Pestalozzi. This benefactor of the human 
race will have the consolation of knowing that Spain renders justice 
to his true merits, and that the Prince of Peace loves him, and shall 
do so all his life, as long as he can appreciate his virtues and the 
fine and perfect fruit of his meditations. 

" Signed, The Prince of Peace." 

"Aranjuez, February, 1808. 

" Statesmen, in their public life, are often obliged to act contrary 
to their real convictions. This has been verified in the abolition of 
the Pestalozzian Royal Military School. The ingratitude of some, 
the fanaticism and superstition of others, and the ignorance of many 
have attributed to the Institution dangerous qualities which never ex- 
isted. Its abolition, therefore, became a matter of absolute necessity. 
Nevertheless, being myself convinced of the excellence of the method, 
and in order to show to the philanthropist Pestalozzi, and to all Eu- 
rope, that I shall never be forced to act inconsistently, I intend to 
take twelve orphan boys under my immediate protection, who shall 
continue to be educated in these principles, and whose career and 
support shall be my care. This news and the result of the last ex- 
amination may, perhaps, tend to console your benevolent heart. 

"The Prince of Peace." 

By the contents of these two letters, we are enabled to form a 
faint picture of the unhappy condition of Spain at that time, and of 
the powerlessness of its rulers. A month after the date of the last 
letter, the palace of the Prince of Peace was sacked and plundered, 
while he barely escaped the fury of the exasperated mob. The 
premature efforts in behalf of education were all rendered abortive 
by the wars that for years desolated that unhappy land. When 
peace was at length restored, by the aid of the British arms, educa- 
tion was surrendered to the Jesuits and ecclesiastics ; and the nation 
so far relapsed into barbarism that, up to a very recent period, not 



218 PESTALOZZI. 

one-tenth of the inhabitants could read or write. The late revolu- 
tions, however, have opened for her a new career, and education 
emancipated is again reviving. 

We can not, with certainty, state how far the Pestalozzian princi- 
ples have obtained a foot-hold in Russia. In a former chapter, we 
have given an account of the personal interview which took place 
between the Emperor Alexander and Pestalozzi, and of the honors 
which the latter received from his imperial friend. We may here 
add that Alexander's name heads the subscription to Pestalozzi's col- 
lected works with 5000 rubles, followed by that of the king of Prus- 
sia with 400 thalers, the king of Bavaria with 700 gulden, the kings 
of Holland, Wiirtemberg, and thirty -four other royal and princely 
personages, for various amounts. 

The Emperor obtained from Pestalozzi a preceptor for the imperial 
princes, and gave his powerful patronage to Von Muralt, a former 
assistant of Pestalozzi, who had established a private seminary at 
St. Petersburg for the education of the higher classes. Blochmann 
calls Muralt one of the most influential teachers and advisers of Pes- 
talozzi, and speaks of him as follows: "He was born of a patrician 
family at Zurich, and had already risen to a considerable degree of 
scientific eminence before entering Pestalozzi's school at Burgdorf. 
Having been in Paris for a long time, he was able to give instruction 
in two languages. He was a strict disciplinarian, decided and digni- 
fied ; yet cordial and sympathizing." 

Such a man was well adapted for the position which he held at 
St. Petersburg; and, since his influence was exercised near the center 
of power, it has probably been felt wherever questions have arisen 
concerning the physical, mental, or moral well being of the people. 



CHAPTER IV'. 
ENGLAND. 

THE circumstances attending the introduction and spread of the 
Pestalozzian principles in England can not be fully understood 
without a brief review of the condition of education in that country, 
and of the efforts which had already been made to produce a reform. 

One of the first conditions of the healthful development of a nat- 
ural system of schools is, that it shall be kept free from the control 
and antagonisms of sect and caste. An examination of the political 
and social condition of England, at any time during the last century, 
will show that this has been wanting. Although the material welfare 
and commercial prosperity of the country have been constantly ad- 
vancing, it is a fact too obvious to be denied, that national schools, 
the advantages of which may be enjoyed by the whole people, have 
never had an existence. 

The chartered Colleges, Universities, and Grammar Schools — leg- 
acies of the mediaeval ages, and accessible only to the privileged few 
— lingered in the rear of civilization. The village and parochial 
schools, dependent for support upon the lord of the manor, or under 
the superintendence of the clergy, were entirely inadequate to meet 
the requirements of education. The teachers, poorly qualified and 
poorly paid, had neither disposition nor ability to raise their standard. 
In the cities and manufacturing centers thousands of children grew 
up in utter ignorance, the ever-living fountain in which the great 
streams of pauperism and crime have their source. With society rent 
by contending and antagonistic sects, and separated into castes by 
customs almost as inexorable as those prevalent among the Hindoos, 
there could be no concert of action, no general, system of schools that 
could reach these unfortunate classes. Public and private charity, 
strained to the utmost, entirely failed to meet the emergency ; and 
history was obliged to record, that in the most prosperous and wealthy 
nation of the world, where the arts and sciences and advanced civili- 
zation have reached the highest state of perfection, one-half the peo- 

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220 PESTALOZZI. 

pie could neither read nor write, and were as uncultivated as if they 
belonged to one of the barbarous races of the world. 

To remedy these evils, and to afford, at least, a modicum of 
instruction to the teeming thousands of the manufacturing cities, 
the monitorial system was devised by Bell and Lancaster. This 
system required the older pupils to hear the recitations of the 
younger ones. These pupil teachers were termed monitors. This was 
a poor device at best, .as the instruction was necessarily confined to 
the mere recitation of words learned from a text-book, without 
thought and without explanation. It was, however, much better 
than nothing, and, as it partially met an imperative human need, it 
spread rapidly and became exceedingly popular. 

The work of Bell resulted in the establishment of the British and 
Foreign School Society in 1805 ; and that of Lancaster, in the forma- 
tion of the National Society in 1811. Both these societies had their 
central establishments in London ; and to both, Normal Schools, for 
training teachers, were afterward attached. 

The principles of teaching, as pursued by these two societies, were 
essentially the same : they only differed in the matter of religious in- 
struction. The former, under the control of the dissenters, theoret- 
ically founded their instructions upon the Bible, but read the word 
without note or comment; while the latter, under the control of the 
established church, required special instruction in the articles and 
formulas of the creed. 

It need scarcely be stated, that these were mostly charity schools. 
Their supporters never contemplated the establishment of a system 
that should meet the requirements and supply the demands of all 
classes. 

How much this system fell short of accomplishing even the limited 
work which it attempted, may be gathered from the report of the 
Commissioners of the Poor, in 1840. Tins report states that 64,570 
children, under sixteen years of age, were found in the poor-houses 
of England, none of whom received instruction of any kind. 

In 1835, Lord Brougham brought the subject of national education 
before the House of Lords by moving a series of resolutions, which, 
among other tilings, advised the encouragement of infant schools, 
the establishment of Others where good teachers might be trained, 
and also suggested the appointment of a Board of Commissioners to 
superintend these various institutions. No action, however, was 
taken on these resolutions. In l<s:>(i and 1837, this indefatigable 
champion in the cause of humanity and civilization again brought 
forward his resolutions, with additional ones, providing for the ap- 



ENGLAND. 221 

pointment of local school committees in corporate towns, for their 
election in agricultural districts, and for the imposition of taxes- for 
the support of schools. 

The only one of these objects realized in 1839, was a Government 
grant, to be divided among such Normal and other schools as would 
place themselves under the supervision of the inspectors appointed by 
the Government. The other objects contemplated by this bill, the 
support of the schools by taxes, and the election of local boards of con- 
trol, were not made a portion of the educational system until 1870. 
In the first election under this law, several of the largest constituen- 
cies of England took a step far in advance of any other portion of 
the world, by the election of women to these school boards. 

In the midst of the discouragements and difficulties which the 
friends of education had to encounter nearly forty years ago, they 
were cheered and comforted by the manly and prophetic utterances 
of Lord Brougham, from which we make the following extracts: 
" For the first time we have had the attention of Parliament fully 
directed to the subject of education, attracted, no doubt, by other 
motives than by real zeal for popular improvement. 

It is thus that the wisdom 
of an overruling Providence, bringing general good out of partial 
evil, orders that some superficial irritation, some flying ache, shall 
excite our attention to the deep-seated mischief that is preying upon 
our vitals, shall lead us to probe its hidden source and enable us to- 
apply the needful remedy, long after the superficial feeling that first 
gave the warning has passed away and been forgotton. The igno- 
rance of the people, the origin of all the worst ills that prey upon our 
social system, has become at length the object of legislative regard ; 
and I defy the constituted authorities of this free country to delay 
much longer in applying the appropriate remedy to a disease as easily 
cured as it is fatal when neglected. ....... 

" It is certain, as things now stand, that the two great parties, into, 
which the community is divided upon this mighty question, are 
resolved that we shall have no system of education at all; no 
national plan for training teachers, so as to make the schools which 
stud the country deserve the name they bear ; no national plan for 
training young children to virtuous habits, and thereby . rooting out 
crimes from the land. This interdict, under which both parties join 
in laying their country, is, by each, pronounced to be necessary for 
the sacred interests of religion. O Religion ! Gracious God ! 
Was ever the name of thy holy ordinances so impiously profaned! 
"Was ever before thy best gift to man, his reason, so bewildered by 



222 PESTALOZZI. 

blind bigotry, or savage intolerance, or wild fanaticism ; — bewildered 
so as to curse the very light thou hast caused to shine before his 
steps ; — bewildered so as not to perceive that any and every religion 
must flourish best in the tutored mind, and that by whomsoever 
instructed in secular things, thy word can be better sown in a soil 
prepared, than in one abandoned through neglect to the execrable in- 
fluence of the evil spirit? ........ 

"I know that nothing like a provision has been made for infant 
training — by far the most essential branch of tuition — to provide 
which is the duty of our rulers above every other duty imperative 
upon them, and which, if they discharge not, they forfeit their title 
to rule. But, if they have not discharged that duty, if they have 
planted no schools where the habits of virtues may be inculcated, 
stretched forth no hand to extirpate the germs of vice, they have 
kept open other schools, where vice is taught with never-failing suc- 
cess. The infant school, which a paternal government would have 
cherished, languishes ; but Newgate flourishes." 

In response to this demand for the establishment of infant schools, 
many systems were advocated by the various friends of education ; 
but those which attained the highest success were the ones estab- 
lished by the disciples of Pestalozzi. Without wishing to underrate 
the labors of others, we would state, that the work actually accom- 
plished was chiefly due to the indefatigable labors of Dr. Mayo, who 
had spent considerable time at Yverdon, and enjoyed the personal 
friendship of Pestalozzi and his associates. He was at the head of a 
large and flourishing school for boys at Cheam, near London, which 
was patronized chiefly by the higher classes. The wide popularity 
which his school attained was owing, in part, to his own excellent 
management; and, in part, to the superior teaching in the mathemat- 
ical department, of Professor Reiner, a pupil of Pestalozzi. 

In general attainments and classic learning, Dr. Mayo ranked as 
peer to the first scholars in the land ; and his connection with the 
Universities, and his wide reputation as a man of letters, gave him 
ample opportunity to secure desirable positions in the higher paths 
of science and literature. 

He found, however, a more congenial occupation in the field of 
education ; and devoted his time and energies to the task of benefit- 
ing childhood, and of elevating the public schools of his country. 
His earliest appeals in favor of a system of infant schools are re- 
corded in a speech delivered before the Royal Institute, in 1826. 
The sentiments contained in this address, and his subsequent acts, 
show that he had the same philanthropic spirit and self-devotion in 



ENGLAND. 223 

the cause of humanity that characterized the original founders of the 
school reform. 

Although, in order to meet the requirements of the English cur- 
riculum of fashionable learning, much of the time of his school was 
devoted to the classics, Dr. Mayo was constantly endeavoring to sup- 
plement this instruction with that real knowdedge, which — as he had 
learned from the precepts and practices of Pestalozzi — is necessary to 
the full and harmonious development of all the powers of the mind. 
He gave especial attention to his younger pupils, laying a broad 
foundation for future development. In pursuing his object, he dis- 
played, in an eminent degree, the combined characteristics of an orig- 
inal thinker and a practical worker. Not satisfied with the mere 
enunciation of high sounding and plausible theories, he submitted 
every plan and method to the ordeal of experiment, and gave to the 
public only such as had stood the test of the most critical analysis. 

In this work he was ably assisted by his sister, Miss Elizabeth 
Mayo, who planned and published a systematic series of Object Les- 
sons. The following narrative from the pen of Dr. Mayo is par- 
ticularly valuable, since it shows the superiority of a person who 
lays hold of the central principles of a great movement, over one 
who merely copies the mechanical portions, preserving the form but 
losing the indwelling spirit : 

"Pestalozzi was peculiarly solicitous that the idea of his method 
of education should not be confounded with the form it might assume. 
He felt, and strongly too, the value, the power, and the truth of 
that idea ; and highly as he was disposed to appreciate the lahors of 
his disciples in their practical application to the work of education, 
he saw that they were, at best, superficial and incomplete, — embody- 
ings of the grand and profound conceptions in which he might be 
said, intellectually, to live, move, and have his being. 

" Profoundly convinced of the truth of Pestalozzi's views, and 
warned against his errors by long actual observation of the conse- 
quences, the writer of these remarks determined to attempt the in- 
troduction of the method into England, religiously preserving the 
idea, but adapting the form to the circumstances in which he might 
be placed. He considered that the most effectual mode of accom- 
plishing this end was to devote himself to the formation of a school, 
in which the arrangement and practical application of those princi- 
ples might be made. To exhibit the system in operation ; to elab- 
orate a course of instruction by means of experiments continually 
repeated; and, above all, to prepare materials for an appeal to 
actual results, seemed to him a far more useful and effectual, 



224 PESTALOZZI. 

though less rapid and brilliant process, than that of dragging 
it before reluctant audiences at public meetings, or of advancing 
its merits in the periodical publications of the day. He was content 
that it should be buried in oblivion for awhile, assured, that, if it 
really possessed the life of truth, it would, "in due time, spring up 
with renewed vigor. That time seems to have arrived. Attention to 
the subject is renewed. Schools, professing to be conducted on Pes- 
talozzian principles, are increasing in number; and publications issue 
from the press, which point out with more or less success, the man- 
ner of applying them to different branches of instruction. They are 
the result of many years of experience, the corrected and re-corrected 
editions of lessons actually given by different individuals. They may 
want some of that ideal beauty discernible in works produced in the 
closet by ingenious imagination ; but they possess, on the other hand, 
the solid advantage of ascertained practicability and demonstrated 
usefulness. 

" It has been thought desirable to commence the series with a 
course of Lessons on Objects. It is a field hitherto little, if at all, 
cultivated. The distinguishing principles of the Pestalozzian system 
are strikingly exemplified in it. The instruction given in infant 
schools would be improved by the introduction of a similar plan, 
and the early education of the nursery would receive a new and 
interesting feature. 

"This mode of instruction was suggested to Pestalozzi by the pecul- 
iar circumstances in which he was placed at Stanz. The brutalized 
state into which the poor children confided to his care had fallen ren- 
dered it absolutely necessary to find some new mode of interesting 
their minds and calling out their dormant faculties. Nature was the 
only book with which they were conversant, and their first lessons 
were consequently drawn from its pages. Experience and judgment 
retained what necessity first imposed. The subjects ordinarily pre- 
sented to the youthful mind appeared too remote from that knowl- 
edge which the child acquires without regular instruction ; and, gen- 
erally, they were taught in too abstract a manner. It was proposed 
to bring education more in contact with the child's own experience 
and observation, and to find in him the first link in the chain of his 
instruction. 

"The plan of teaching by objects was adopted, yet many inconven- 
iences resulted from the arrangement. The. subjects which the room 
itself, the building, the premises, presented were soon exhausted, or 
thought to be so; the pupils were then taken into the fields, but the 
weather was an occasional hinderance ; the variety of objects pre- 



ENGLAND. 225 

sented out-of-doors distracted the attention of the pupils, and, though 
much interest was at first excited, still, as there was no sensible prog- 
ress, no perceivable end, it diminished rather than increased in force. 
It was thought, too, that the exercises, so miscellaneous in character, 
so devoid of systematic arrangement, were essentially defective as a 
means of intellectual development. Upon these grounds the miscel- 
laneous Object Lessons were abandoned, and the master (Kriisi) who 
had conducted the class, substituted a course on the parts and func- 
tions of the human frame. These are contained in the ' Manual for 
Mothers,' a work presenting valuable hints for early education, mixed 
with much that is insufferably tedious. At the period when the writer 
of these observations was in the Institution at Yverdon, instruction 
on objects had fallen into disuse ; but, having heard this history from 
the teacher who had formerly given it, he felt strongly convinced 
that a mode might be adopted by which its advantages would be 
secured, and its contingent inconveniences avoided. Having commu- 
nicated this impression to his sister, Miss Mayo, with a general no- 
tion of the plan, he has left the execution of the details to her ; and 
the result of her labor is the exercises now for the first time pre- 
sented to the public. ......... 

"As they are intended to be preparatory to instruction in Natural 
History, they gradually assume a more scientific character, and thus 
a feeling of progress is sustained in the pupil's mind. It has been 
found, indeed, by long experience, that no lessons produce more con- 
tinued interest, or more enlarge the minds of children, than those on 
objects." 

The "Lessons on Objects" were published in 1830, and were soon 
followed by "Lessons on Number and Form," prepared by Professor 
Reiner. About this time Mr. Greaves, an enthusiastic friend and ad- 
mirer of Pestalozzi, and Dr. Biber, a learned German, who published 
a life of Pestalozzi in English, called the attention of the British 
public to the needed reform in education generally, and to the im- 
portance of the establishment of infant schools in particular. 

The result of these exertions was the formation of the Home and 
Colonial Society in 1836. A building was selected in Gray's Inn 
Road, and a school opened for the training of children. The necessity 
of a Normal department was soon felt, since the school was expected 
to be a nursery of other schools of the same kind. Through the 
indefatigable exertions of its leading manager, Mr. Reynolds, a gen- 
tleman of noble impulses and considerable wealth, the establishment 
of the Normal department was secured, and the sphere of the use- 
fulness of the society was enlarged. 
P. 1 5. 



226 PESTALOZZI. 

The wide celebrity of this Training School, however, is mainly due 
to its vigorous adherence to the rational system of education, which 
is a direct outgrowth of the principles of Pestalozzi. Its religious 
foundation is sufficiently broad to embrace all the distinctive evan- 
gelical sects, and it is as free from the influence of caste as it is pos- 
sible to be in the present condition of English government and so- 
ciety. 

For its free spirit, and the reputation it has obtained in consequence, 
the Institution is largely indebted to Dr. Mayo and his sister. Their 
writings had attracted the attention of Mr. Reynolds, and profoundly 
impressed him with the importance of placing his school upon a basis 
which should secure to it the aid of enlightened and noble minds. 
This basis he found in what Dr. Mayo calls, when referring to the 
work of Pestalozzi, "the application of Christianity to the business of 
education." Miss Mayo, who soon afterward moved into the neigh- 
borhood of London, gave to the school her valuable assistance, until 
her death. 

In consequence of the new and superior methods pursued, the In- 
stitution, from time to time, secured the cooperation of many efficient 
educators, prominent among whom may be mentioned Mr. Robert 
Dunning, of Scotland. He came from a country where the paro- 
chial school system dates back to the time of the discovery of Amer- 
ica, and where the Protestant element was so powerful as to scarcely 
allow one of its citizens to grow up without being able to read the 
Bible. The development of the Scotch school of philosophy, with 
its sharp analysis of the powers of the mind, had also given education 
an impulse in that country even before the agitation for reform com- 
menced in England. The system of Mr. Stowe had the merit of 
approximating the truth, but it lacked the true spirit of development. 
Mr. Dunning, however, was not content with this half-way work. 
His clear and discriminating mind soon saw that the basis of educa- 
tion must rest upon the development of the perceptive faculties, by 
appealing directly to the objects themselves, rather than by obtaining 
the same result through the circuitous path of the imagination. 
Thus, in hearty sympathy with the general spirit of the Institution, 
Mr. Dunning was appointed to superintend its methods, and arrange 
courses of instruction. He performed this service with great intelli- 
gence and ability. 

Mr. Coghlan, a native of Ireland, and to some extent a pupil of 
the school, did important and valuable service in skillfully carrying 
out the methods of instruction in the junior practicing school, and 
in preparing exercises for some of the higher departments. 



ENGLAND. 227 

Prof. Reiner, the teacher of Mathematics, was connected with the 
school at Yverdon, until it was given up in 1826. He was afterward 
associated with Dr. Mayo, and upon the death of the latter, he moved 
to London and was employed in the Home and Colonial School, 
where he rendered most excellent service in his favorite branch of 
instruction. He also taught the children of Queen Victoria. 

We should also mention here the services of Mr. Tegetmeier, in 
the branches of Natural Science, and of the Misses Sunter, Tucker, 
and Jones in the practicing and training departments. The latter we 
shall meet again in our notice of education in America. 

The author may be excused for mentioning his own connection 
with this school. For five years his services were employed in de- 
veloping exercises in various departments, among which was Invent- 
ive Drawing, already mentioned in a previous chapter. 

Among the agencies which have given this school just celebrity 
for training teachers, is its practicing school, where the pupils are 
obliged to apply the principles in which they have been instructed. 

The influence of this school upon education in England can scarcely 
be overstated. It has sent out more than four thousand well trained 
teachers to take their places in the elementary schools. Above all, 
it has steadily inculcated the true philosophic principles of education, 
which sooner or later must permeate the whole social system of the 
country. 

It is but just to mention the Training School at Battersea, near 
London. This school was established under the auspices, and, in 
part, by the funds of Messrs. Tuffnel and Shuttleworth, two gentle- 
men who had previously traveled through nearly every country in 
Europe, in order to make themselves acquainted with the best sys- 
tems of instruction. 

They seem to have been most attracted by the labors of Fellen- 
berg and Wehrli, at Hofwyl, in Switzerland, where the methods of 
Pestalozzi were applied to agricultural and industrial training ; and 
the school which they established was founded upon a similar basis. 
This school has also accomplished an excellent work : directly, by 
giving a scientific and practical education to its pupils ; and indirectly, 
by extending a knowledge of the true processes of instruction to all 
parts of the country through its pupils and graduates. 



CHAPTER V. 
UNITED STATES. 

THE development of the political and social institutions of this 
country has been the result of such diverse and often antag- 
onistic forces, and has proceeded so rapidly, that, at the present time, 
it is scarcely possible to form a just estimate of it in all its varied 
relations. The field of survey is so vast, and the progressive tenden- 
cies so universal, that individual and particular movements are 
merged and lost in the majestic march of the nation. 

In a general review of the progress of education in this country, 
we meet with the same difficulties. The movements have apparently 
been so spontaneous and general that the schools seem rather a nat- 
ural growth, than the result of deliberate action. In the North, edu- 
cation for all was recognized as a fundamental principle from the very 
first settlement of the country. This sentiment, broadening and deep- 
ening in its course, kept pace with the tide of civilization advancing 
toward the West, until now it is recognized as an integrant part of the 
political and social fabric of American institutions. As interpreted 
in this country, education for all, means education that is practically 
free, without restrictions for class, caste, sex, or creed. It means 
also, that while all shall have equal advantages, those advantages 
shall be shared together in the same schools ; and although restric- 
tions have been imposed, from time to time, they have usually been 
both local and temporary in their character. 

For the realization of this grand idea of education, the American 
people have always made sacrifices that have excited the admiration 
of the world. Legislatures and individuals have all brought their 
most acceptable offerings to the great altar of human intelligence. 
The methods have apparently not kept pace with the spread of edu- 
cation. The fathers of the country adopted the best system known 
in their time, and brought it within the reach of all ; but in the 
hurry and excitement of material advancement, the old system be- 
came crystallized and rigid, and for a long time little or no thought 
was given to improved methods. 
(228) 



UNITED STATES. 229 

The Avork before us is, not to trace the history of education in this 
country ; but, rather, to note to what extent, and by whom the im- 
proved method as advocated by Pestalozzi has been introduced, what 
has been its effect upon education generally, and what are the obsta- 
cles in the way of its complete and general adoption. 

As preliminary to this work, we would call attention to the gen- 
eral progress of education ; and to the successive phases which it 
must assume in the evolution of society, before the introduction of 
new methods is possible, and when their application becomes a mat- 
ter of necessity. 

The first stage of progress is the awakening of the nation to the 
consciousness that the elements of science must be acquired in order 
to enable the individual to escape from the trammels of superstition 
and ignorance. Europe entered this phase of education at the com- 
mencement of the Reformation ; and with it America commenced 
her career. 

From the first stage there gradually develops an appreciation of 
the needs of humanity. This leads to the second stage, in which 
the schools, mistaking the shadow for the substance, draw their in- 
spiration mainly from the classic sources of by-gone times. The mem- 
ory is cultivated at the expense of the higher faculties of the mind ; 
and the spirit of culture is lost in anxious efforts to preserve the 
form. This phase of education amuses the people with the sem- 
blance of learning, while it retards and discourages all efforts at 
original thought. 

The third stage is really a continuation of the second, though ap- 
parently antagonistic to it. It comes in an era when physical wealth 
and prosperity have advanced farther than mental culture ; and when 
there is a general desire to obtain the results of learning without sub- 
mitting to the conditions through which alone learning can be ob- 
tained. Knowledge is regarded as something outside of man and 
wholly foreign to his nature, rather than something which should 
enter into the very texture of his being. Science, being of use, at 
least its terms should be known. The memorizing of scientific state- 
ments is, therefore, considered as equivalent to the acquisition of 
facts; and the pupils who are stuffed with these mere symbols of 
knowledge are often regarded as prodigies of learning. At school 
exhibitions parents and school officers are struck with wonder at the 
glibness of the recitations of the pupils, and are as satisfied with 
these baubles of science as the savage is with his bright buttons and 
glass beads. 

Education at this time is full of fallacious promises, in which the 



230 PESTALOZZI. 

fruit is to come before the blossom, and the full harvest before the 
seed has been sown; it is full of professions which can never be real- 
ized, because they are contrary to the eternal laws of God. 

The schools of the United States seem still to be largely controlled 
by the ideas that characterize this era. They have, it is true, gone 
one step beyond the old system of memorizing merely classical sub- 
jects ; and have, to a considerable extent, recognized the importance 
of science in all its relations. 

In the fourth era of educational progress, philosophy which has 
been developed in other pursuits is directed toward methods and 
systems. At this time people begin to discover that true education, 
like true science and philosophy, must every-where be in harmony 
with nature, and proceed in accordance with natural laws. They see 
that intelligence must take the place of routine, and that education 
must express an inward condition rather than an outward object. 
At this period the idea begins to dawn that school life should be a 
vital part of common life ; and that school exercises should all be 
founded upon the previous experiences of the pupils, and should 
proceed step by step to enlarge these experiences and to unfold the 
mental powers. There arises, also, a perception that the true stand- 
ard of excellence, in any process of instruction, is its capability of 
generally interesting pupils, and of inciting them to originality and 
independence of thought. The question is not, how much does this 
pupil know upon this or that topic ; but, rather, how well is he pre- 
pared to grasp any subject and treat it with intelligence? 

This last era is yet to be fully realized ; but is one, if we mistake 
not the signs of the times, upon which the American schools are rap- 
idly entering. In this era the principles of Pestalozzi are impera- 
tively demanded, and are necessary to the next steps of progress. 

For many years isolated ideas of unmistakable Pestalozzian origin 
have been presented to the American public by different educators. 
In 1823, Warren Colburn made the first assault upon the old system 
by publishing his " Intellectual Arithmetic," a work which has had 
an immense influence in changing, and, indeed, in revolutionizing 
teaching in that branch of instruction. The origin of the plan upon 
which the book is constructed is seen in the principle of gradual and 
systematic development, which is its characteristic feature ; and in 
the fact that the Pestalozzian table of units as prepared by Krusi 
was appended to its first edition. 

The veteran educator and reformer, Samuel J. May, of Syracuse, 
in an address before the Normal School at Bridgewater, Massachu- 
setts, used the following language concerning Mr. Colburn's work 



UNITED STATES. 231 

and the reforms that followed : " This little work gave not so much 
the theory, as an example of what a school-book ought to be; and 
throughout our schools it has changed not only the method of teach- 
ing the science of which it treats, but the true method of teaching 
the elements of all other sciences." 

It seemed as if from that date, 1823, the demand for improved 
methods of education became more urgent. Some men went like 
missionaries from place to place, preaching a new educational creed, 
in which not words alone, but their essence and spirit, as embodied in 
facts, were to become the saving agency from ignorance and pedantry. 
Others wrote publications to the same effect ; and others, again, 
worked by practice and example in their respective spheres. 

The Journal of Education, commenced by Professor AVm. Russell 
in 1826, and published by him for several years, did good work. 
The publication of Mrs. Austin's translation of Cousin's " Report of 
the State of Public Instruction in Prussia;" and the accounts which 
were brought by intelligent travelers from other European States, 
made known the mortifying fact, that, during the preceding century, 
very much more had been done to give the people of the monarch- 
ical governments a thorough knowledge of the elements of literature 
and science, than had been done by the freest and most intelligent 
States of this Republic. 

The Rev. Charles Brooks and others went about the country 
lecturing upon the subject, every-where telling to large audiences the 
story of our shameful deficiencies, describing the European seminaries, 
and stating that no one there was permitted to be a teacher, who 
had not been prepared for the work. Upon Seminaries and Normal 
Schools, the thoughts of the wisest friends of education in our country 
now concentrated. 

Among those who, at this time, were quietly engaged in carrying 
the principles of Pestalozzi into practical execution, were two remark- 
able men, brothers, Dr. Wm. A., and Mr. A. Bronson Alcott. The 
latter for some time taught a private school in a retired country vil- 
lage, where, by following the principles of development in an original 
manner, he had produced results of a most remarkable and satisfac- 
tory character. Afterward he was associated with his brother in the 
management of a private school in Connecticut. This school was con- 
ducted on principles very far in advance of the times. From this 
field of labor, he received an invitation to organize an infant school 
in Boston, which he accepted with alacrity. 

He entered upon the performance of his new duties with his whole 
soul, and with a sincere desire to promote the welfare of the children 



229 



PESTALOZZI. 



committed to his care. He treated his pupils as moral, as well as 
intellectual, beings ; and, like Pestalozzi, he was convinced that 
moral impressions, to be durable, must be based upon experience 
and upon ideas gained from real objects and actions. Proverbs, 
apothegms, and moral precepts, though conveyed in fine words, and 
repeated until indelibly impressed upon the memory, he thought 
could never produce genuine moral convictions. Carrying out these 
ideas to their logical conclusions, even in Bible lessons he listened to 
the simple suggestions of the pupils with respectful attention, instead 
of enforcing upon them the opinions of the authoritative expounders 
of the text. He often refused to decide between their different opin- 
ions, preferring to so lead their minds that they would see the truth 
rather than have it stated for them. He had no confidence in the 
efficacy of that system which memorizes words, that the ideas con- 
tained in them might be comprehended at some future state of de- 
velopment. 

He was appreciated by the few, but condemned by the many. His 
independence of opinion estranged from him many of his original 
supporters ; for he never stooped to flatter, nor did he ever change 
his course for fear of losing patronage. Like Pestalozzi, he considered 
the children of the poor just as worthy of his consideration as the 
children of the rich ; and his persistent refusal to remove a colored 
child from his school, at a time when the slave power in America 
not only dominated in politics, but extended its baleful influence 
through every ramification of society, resulted in the withdrawal of 
patronage, and the breaking up of his school. 

With the spirit of the old martyrs, this noble descendant of the 
Puritans faced poverty, obloquy, and social ostracism rather than be- 
tray humanity ; and his act was one of the heroic deeds which re- 
buked the servility of the times and helped to rouse the nation to a 
sense of the terrible iniquity which was corrupting and debasing its 
manhood and destroying the very foundation of its existence. He 
7iiost heroically verified the truth of the poet, when he says: 

"To side with truth is noble, 

When we share her wretched crust, 
Ere her cause brings fame and profit, 
And 'tis prosperous to be just." 

In 1826, Hon. James C. Carter, of Massachusetts, issued a pamph- 
let in which he reviewed the condition of the schools of New Eng- 
land, and suggested measures of reform. Of this Mr. May says : 
" Mr. Carter descants wisely upon the inestimable influence of early 



UNITED STATES. 233 

education ; pays a just tribute to the wise foresight of the founders 
of New England in providing for the culture of all the young; and 
shows the deteriorating effects which flow from the institution of 
private Academies, of which there were none in Massachusetts until 
after the Revolution. He then exposes the defects in the organ- 
ization of the free schools, as well as in the methods pursued in them. 
In conclusion, he shows that they can be made what they should be, 
by a careful preparation of teachers for them, and gives some excel- 
lent hints of an institution for the education of teachers. This last 
was the great idea of his pamphlet. It has since been expanded 
until it has grown into the present common school system of Massa- 
chusetts, comjDrising a Board of Education, a number of Normal 
Schools, and a body of wholesome laws for the government of schools 
of different grades, which are now required to be kept at the public 
expense in all the towns of the Commonwealth." 

The labors of Horace Mann in the cause of education were of such 
a character as to insure to his memory the gratitude, not only of 
Massachusetts, which was the theater of his principal labors, but of 
the whole country. Like Pestalozzi, his work was characterized by 
a lofty and noble enthusiasm for the cause of humanity. He em- 
ployed his great eloquence in defense of the right, and in oj:>position 
to all ideas and customs which tended to keep his fellow -men in 
physical or intellectual bondage. 

We have already laid before our readers Horace Mann's notice of 
the career of Von Turk, in which he expresses in the most eloquent 
terms his appreciation of the nobleness of that spirit, which sacrificed 
wealth, political preferment, and social distinction for the benefit of 
the poor and unfortunate. Mr. Mann's own career furnishes another 
example of a life sacredly dedicated to the cause of truth and justice, 
and to the moral elevation of the people. 

In 1837, Horace Mann, then a prominent lawyer, and a member 
of the Senate of Massachusetts, was appointed Secretary of the 
newly created Board of Education in that State. This post he occu- 
pied for eleven years. Durilig that time he devoted himself with 
untiring energy to the labors of his office, generally working fifteen 
hours a day, thus depriving himself of ease, social pleasures, and rec- 
reation. This self-immolation enabled him to accomplish a vast 
amount of work ; but it also engendered a disease, which caused him 
great suffering and finally shortened his life. That his course was a 
matter of choice, and the penalty clearly understood, may be gathered 
from the advice given on his dying bed to his pupils: "Be ashamed to 
die unless yon have icon some victory for humanity." 



234 PESTALOZZI. 

The following are some of the principal measures of reform adopted 
during Mr. Mann's administration, and they are directly attributable 
to his efforts : 

First. — Paid school committees were appointed in the towns to 
examine and employ teachers, and to superintend the schools. By 
this measure, a responsible head was provided for the schools in each 
town, and many abuses were corrected, by which the qualification of 
teachers and the general standard of schools were raised throughout 
the State. 

Second. — A system of local reports from these committees to the 
Board of Education, was required, so that the details of the schools 
in every locality could be accurately known. 

From these reports the comparative tables of the State Report Mere 
compiled, and a new impulse was given to the schools by exciting an 
emulation for an honorable position before the public. 

Third. — County Conventions and Teachers' Institutes were organ- 
ized, resulting in a free interchange of ideas and experiences, and 
creating an esprit de corps, which excited teachers to renewed activity, 
and stimulated and enlightened the communities, where they labored. 

Fourth. — Normal Schools for the professional education of teachers 
were established. 

Mr. Mann early saw, that, unless teachers had an opportunity for 
special preparation for their duties, the work of educational reform 
could not go on, because it would rest on no solid foundation. . To 
the creation of a Normal School, therefore, he gave special attention. 

At the time, there was such a general apathy in regard to the 
training of teachers, that it was impossible to induce the Massachu- 
setts Legislature to make an appropriation, which, at the present time, 
would scarcely be considered sufficient to build a village school-house. 
Private generosity, however, furnished the means, which was refused 
by public parsimony. Mr. Dwight, a wealthy merchant of Boston, 
offered ten thousand dollars to the State for the establishment of a 
Normal School, provided the Legislature would appropriate an equal 
sum. This offer was accepted, and the "Normal School at Lexington 
was opened on the 8th of July, 1838, within sight of the ground 
where the sturdy yeomanry of New England struck the first blow 
for their freedom in 1775. The first day of the session three pupils 
timidly made their appearance, and placed themselves under the care 
of the Principal, Cyrus Pierce, who afterward received from the teach- 
ers of the State the affectionate title, " Father Pierce." This open- 
ing, so apparently discouraging and inauspicious, marked the com- 
mencement of a new era. The battle for professional training had 



UNITED STATES. 235 

been won. We may easily excuse Horace Mann for the expression 
of triumph and enthusiasm which is recorded in his diary: "Is it 
not glorious ! I feel rather sublime ! Let the stars look out for my 
head." 

In 1843, under the auspices of the Massachusetts Board of Educa- 
tion, but at his own expense, Mr. Mann visited Europe, as he says, 
"To examine the schools, and to get such information as could be 
made available at home." His " Seventh Annual Report," made 
after his return, embodied the result of this tour. Probably no edu- 
cational document in this country has ever had a greater circulation, 
or created so deep a sensation. Wherever Mr. Mann went, he carried 
with him a keen eye for what constitutes the true greatness of a 
people. He was not indifferent to the beauties of nature, nor to the 
achievements of art ; but, like Pestalozzi, he never allowed the aspects 
of the external world to blind him to the condition of the people,, 
and he was often pained and saddened by the contrasts presented. 
In England, he did not find much that could be applied in his own 
country. In Scotland, he was pleased with the order, zeal, and love 
of learning manifested in many of the schools ; but he deplored the 
time and energy wasted upon formulas and other outgrowths of 
dogmatism. 

In Germany, and particularly in Prussia, he seems to have discov- 
ered the true secret of success in the processes of education. He is 
most enthusiastic in praise of those schools which had partaken most 
directly of the spirit of Pestalozzi, through the teachings of his im- 
mediate friends and associates. He represents the teachers and pupils 
of these schools to be in perfect harmony with each other : the 
former, intelligent, self-reliant, and sympathetic ; the latter, con- 
tented and happy under a course of training which supplied the 
wants of the expanding mind, and obtained obedience without re- 
course to force, or an appeal to mercenary motives. 

The enthusiastic praise which Mr. Mann bestowed upon the Ger- 
man schools, and the sharp criticisms conveyed in the comparisons 
which he made between the methods he found in use there and those 
practiced in his own country, drew upon him the ire and animosity 
of a large number of pedagogues, whose self-importance he had so 
disturbed, and whose claims to be considered leaders in the educa- 
tional movements of this world he had so rudely called in question. 
Thirty-one Boston school - masters united in the preparation of a 
pamphlet, the object of which was to controvert the facts and deduc- 
tions of this report, and to demonstrate the superiority of the Amer- 
ican school system over that of any of the countries of Europe. In 



236 PESTALOZZI. 

his reply Mr. Mann handled his adversaries " without gloves." He 
overwhelmed them with testimony, and deluged them with argument. 

To the sneering remark, that the institutions of a free country need 
not he improved by any importations from the governments of the 
Old World, he opposed the fact, that the rod had almost fallen into 
disuse in some of these despotic countries, while, as yet, it sorely 
troubled the backs and hands of many a budding republican under 
the vaunted reign of self-control. 

The public, which had become greatly interested in the contro- 
versy, generally accorded to Mr. Mann a complete victory ; and he 
Avas never afterward troubled by open attacks from school-teachers 
whose self-love and zeal outran their intelligence and discretion. 

Mr. Mann next advocated the grading of schools, which had now 
become for the first time possible by the preparation of teachers 
trained to their vocation. Before the close of his labors as Secretary, 
large numbers of these schools were in successful operation, raising 
the standard of education, and becoming centers for the dissemina- 
tion of new ideas concerning it. 

In 1849, Mr. Mann resigned his position to take his place in the 
National House of Representatives, to which he had been elected as 
successor to John Quincy Adams. After a few years' service as leg- 
islator, he accepted the Presidency of a newly-founded college at 
Antioch, Ohio. The extremely liberal policy upon which the Insti- 
tution was founded — that of opening its doors to all without regard 
to race, color, denomination or sex — fully met the approbation of 
Mr. Mann ; and he entered upon the discharge of his duties with his 
usual zeal and enthusiasm. But financial difficulties, arising from 
broken pledges, mismanagement, and a thousand petty annoyances 
from coarse natures that could in no way sympathize with the benefi- 
cent ideas of the great-hearted philanthropist, embittered his life and 
shortened his days. He died at his post, giving lessons of wisdom 
with his latest breath. His native State has placed his statue in 
bronze in the Capitol, side by side with those of her most honored 
statesmen. But his most fitting monument is the noble school system 
which he has built; and that gratitude which will increase rather 
than diminish as long as virtue is cherished among men. 

The successors of Horace Mann, as Secretary of the Massachusetts 
Board of Education, were Dr. Barnas Sears, afterward President of 
Brown University, and Hon. George S. Boutwell, since Secretary of 
the United States Treasury. These men ably carried out the meas- 
ures inaugurated by Horace Mann. Under their administration the 
influence of Normal Schools and Teachers' Institutes greatly increased, 



UNITED STATES. 237 

and the instruction given in them became more systematic in its char- 
acter. Graded schools were also multiplied, and the district schools 
of the towns were gradually consolidated, and placed under more 
efficient and intelligent supervision. 

Among those who early became imbued with the spirit of Pesta- 
lozzi was Lowell Mason, of Boston, the eminent composer and teacher 
of music. Believing thoroughly in the new principles of education, 
he set about applying them to his own special branch of instruction 
with a success so marked, that the methods which he devised are now 
substantially adopted every-where in the country. He also devoted 
much time and energy to the introduction of music into the common 
schools ; and in this he succeeded so well that it is evident, that a 
full realization of this idea is only a question of time, as the edu- 
cational forces of the country now favor it. The manner in which 
he first became interested in these principles is shown by the follow- 
ing history — for some facts of which we are indebted to Barnard's 
Review: Mr. Win. C. Woodbridge, a well- known educator, while 
visiting the schools of Germany became so fully convinced of the 
importance of singing as a branch of education, that he provided 
himself with the most approved text-books for school and class in- 
struction. Among these was the treatise of M. T. Pfeiffer and H. G. 
Niigeli, entitled "Method of Teaching Music according to the Prin- 
ciples of Pestalozzi." This book and others which had been prepared 
with particular reference to the legitimate influence of song in moral 
culture and the training of the affections, Mr. Woodbridge placed in 
the hands of Lowell Mason, trying to induce him to make an experi- 
ment of a course of singing on the new plan. Mr. Mason, with some 
reluctance, consented, and was himself astonished at the result ob- 
tained. He was fully convinced of the practicability and fitness of 
the new method, which, while appealing to reason and common sense, 
deals with reality rather than with its symbols, and thus combines 
practice with theory. 

In 1837, Mr. Mason visited Europe, chiefly for the purpose of 
making himself acquainted with the best methods of teaching music, 
although he did not neglect to bestow attention upon other branches, 
in order to show the universal bearing of sound principles of educa- 
tion. After his return from Europe, he had ample opportunities of 
carrying out his principles of inductive teaching, and his methods 
may not unjustly be mentioned as more rigidly exact and philosoph- 
ical than even those adopted abroad. The suggestive views of Nii- 
geli and Pestalozzi, Mr. Mason has carried further than any other 
teacher has ever done, having that simplicity and clearness which 



238 PESTALOZZI. 

enabled him to render the subject easy and popular, and a great zeal 
and perseverance, which encouraged him to stand firm against preju- 
dice. 

The Massachusetts Teachers' Institutes established by Horace 
Mann, presented another sphere of extensive Usefulness and influence. 
" His long experience as a practical teacher ; his rare tact in devel- 
oping principles in the simplest and happiest manner ; his endless 
variety of illustrations ; his genial wit and humor ; his sympathy with 
youth; his gentle, reformatory hints, and occasional grave reflections, 
gave him an indescribable power over his audience. 

"Nor is his mission limited to the single department of music. 
His wide and comprehensive views embrace the whole field of educa- 
tion. Horace Mann justly remarks : ' It is well worth walking ten 
miles to hear a lesson of Dr. Mason ; for in it, he would hear a most 
able exposition of the true principles of all teaching, as well as that 
of instruction in music' " 

In a second trip to Europe, Mr. Mason Was particularly interested 
in the methods pursued at the Home and Colonial School, London. 
The lessons which he gave there excited the admiration of all who 
heard them. On the other hand, he had the advantage of finding a 
lucid and practical exposition of Pestalozzi's ideas in the writings of 
Miss Mayo, and in the discourses of Mr. Dunning. The lessons to 
which he listened were not so abstract as those frequently given by 
jjrofessed Pestalozzians ; and the pupils were supplied with more ob- 
jects of illustration, than in the schools of Germany. Mr. Mason re- 
turned with a still stronger conviction, that the experiments he had 
hitherto made rested on a sure foundation. Although somewhat ad- 
vanced in years, he prepared a powerful lecture upon Pestalozzianism, 
which he delivered before the American Institute of Instruction at 
New Haven, Connecticut, in 1854, and afterward in many other 
places. 

Many persons have contributed to the reform by the preparation 
of treatises, and by practical teaching upon specific subjects. Among 
these we must not forget to mention the labor and teaching of the 
late Professor Agassiz, whose greatness rests, not merely in the result 
of his many scientific discoveries, but in the success he achieved as a 
teacher. His main task was to inspire his pupils with a love of na- 
ture, and to show the way by which it is possible for every aspiring 
mind to enter her labyrinths and to collect her hidden treasures. 
He has given an entirely new impulse to the study of Natural His- 
tory by his constant reference to the objects themselves as the only 
.source of correct information. His reply to the pupil who asked him, 



UNITED STATES. 239 

"What book shall I get for the study of the Crustacea;?" shows how 
thoroughly he practiced the true objective system in teaching: "Get 
no book ; go to the sea-shore ; collect there all the shells and marine 
animals you can find ; observe them minutely, so that you can de- 
scribe them accurately ; compare them one with another, and state 
definitely their points of resemblance and difference. In this way you 
will get a thorough knowledge of the elements of your subject, which 
you can get in no other way." 

When the announcement of his death caused deep mourning 
throughout the land, and high and deserved praises fell from the 
lips of sympathizing friends, there was one that surpassed all others : 
"He was a true teacher, faithful to the end." His words of instruc- 
tion, spoken near the close of his life to a congenial band of fellow- 
workers on Penikese Island, were gathered like a sacred behest. They 
are indeed worthy of one, who, although not directly a pupil of Pes- 
talozzi, had breathed the same air on the beautiful shores of Lake 
Neufchatel, and, what is more, was imbued by the same spirit — a 
spirit which benefits and ennobles mankind. 

From these we select the following : 

"My intention is not to impart information, but to throw upon you 
the burden of study; if I succeed in teaching you to observe, my end 
is attained. As to myself, I must, to all intents and purposes, be 
ignorant before you." 

"When you have specimens (the most common are the best), try 
to make the pupil observe and tell the most striking features. He 
will thus compose a book of his own, which is much better than the 
compilations thrown into his hands with an array of empty names 
and undigested facts." 

"Until you know an animal, or any other natural object, do not 
care for its name." 

" Never attempt to teach what you do not know yourself and 
know well. It is a great mistake to suppose that any one can teach 
the elements of science. To have a smattering of something is one 
of the great fallacies of our time. A teacher ought to know some 
one thing well." 

" The study of nature is direct intercourse with the Highest Mind. 
When you sit down to natural history work, it should be with the 
intention to give yourself up to the thought. It is unworthy an in- 
telligent being to trifle with the works of the Creator. Even to a 
materialist, they are the works of the highest power. A laboratory 
of natural history is a sanctuary in which nothing improper should 
be exhibited. 



240 PESTALOZZI. 

"I would tolerate improprieties in a church sooner than in a scien- 
tific laboratory." 

" Remember that science is the recovery of ideas that were in the 
Creative Mind. Love, devotion, simple humility, and a submission 
to nature — not an endeavor to control nature — give success to a 
naturalist." 

Professor Arnold Guyot, the intimate friend and countryman of 
the great Naturalist, whose "Earth and Man," proclaims him a 
worthy pupil of Ritter and an original thinker, deserves mention ; 
since in his work — presenting the earth as a growing organism in 
which all the parts are subservient to one great design — he has 
aided in making Geography a complete science, not merely a con- 
glomerate of isolated facts. 

Without undervaluing the merits of other lecturers and writers in 
this vast country, we may be permitted to mention some, who, al- 
though not wholly pioneers in their respective sciences, yet working 
together in unity of faith and purpose, and considering a knowledge 
of the elements of one science as a step toward the comprehension of 
another, did much for the cause of education. The harmony which 
characterized the action of the lecturers of the early Massachusetts In- 
stitutes — Louis Agassiz, and Arnold Guyot, Dr. Lowell Mason, 
William Russell, Alpheus Crosby, Samuel Green, Dana P. Colburn, 
Sanborn Tenney, and others — seemed to be a reflex of that harmony 
existing between the different faculties of the mind, where each de- 
rives its sustenance and vigor from the healthy cooperation of the 
others. The power of these men lay in their enthusiasm, in the clear- 
ness and thoroughness of their ideas, and in their skill in presenting 
them. 

So far we have noticed only the teachers belonging to New Eng- 
land. It must not be supposed, however, that the reform was confined 
to that section of the country. A direct effort was early made to 
introduce these principles into Philadelphia. In an address delivered 
before the National Convention of Teachers in 1862, Professor N. A. 
Calkins gave the following account of this matter : 

"During the summer of 1805, Mr. Win. McClure, of Philadel- 
phia, while traveling in Switzerland, visited Pestalozzi's school, and 
was so much pleased with the system of teaching that he resolved to 
introduce it into America. Mr. Naef, then residing in Paris, was 
recommended to him for that purpose. Moved by the generous in- 
vitation of Mr. McClure to be his master's apostle in the New World, 
he would have accepted immediately, but for his ignorance of the 
English language. Mr. McClure allowed him, at his expense, two 



UNITED STATES. 241 

years for the study of this indispensable means of communication. 
In 1809, Mr. Naef published a small volume in the style of an ex- 
tended prospectus, describing the plans and principles of the new 
method of education, and inviting attention to his newly-formed pri- 
vate school. He labored for several years in one of the suburbs of 
Philadelphia; but, for some cause, probably from his inability to 
adapt himself to the American mind, his enterprise failed. His sen- 
timent, expressed in a work on language, that it was his highest 
ambition to be an obscure, useful, country school-master, amidst a 
hardy, vigorous community, reflected something of the spirit which 
animated his ancient friend and master among the outcasts of Stanz. 
It was not, however, calculated to gain him many admirers or im- 
itators on this side of the ocean. Of his fate we are unacquainted, 
nor do we know how far his teaching or work has influenced more prac- 
tical men to bestow their mite toward methods of education more in 
unison with the American character and the requirements of the 
age." 

Teachers' Institutes had their origin in New York, and in many of 
them much valuable instruction has, from time to time, been given- 
David P. Page, a Massachusetts teacher, was placed at the head of 
the first New York Normal School, in 1845. He possessed, in an 
eminent degree, the noble spirit of Pestalozzi ; and, before his death, 
in 1848, he had introduced many improved methods of instruction,: 
all tending in the right direction. Hon. Samuel Young, as head of 
the school department of the State, gave a new impulse to education 
by his criticisms upon existing systems ; and by his bold and per- 
sistent advocacy of sweeping measures of reform. 

Rev. Samuel J. May, D. H. Cruttenden, James Johonnot, and 
others, disseminated, at Institutes and elsewhere, ideas concerning 
true philosophical methods, until there prevailed, among the most en- 
lightened friends of education, a general distrust of the value of the 
old systems, and a corresponding desire to try something new. 

With all this advocacy of correct principles, it is generally ad- 
mitted, that there has always been a great lack in the adaptation of 
methods to the practical work of teaching. In Institutes and Asso- 
ciations the work was necessarily limited to the presentation of prin- 
ciples and methods, leaving the practical application to the teachers 
themselves. In the Normal Schools the theoretical part was given in : 
a very fragmentary manner, with little opportunity to test its appli- 
cation to practical work. Graduates were thus left to their own de- 
vices, and each one was obliged to arrive at excellence through a 
series of crude experiments and often failures, simply because his first 
P. 16. 



242 PESTALOZZI. 

efforts were not under the supervision of some skillful instructor. 
The want of some systematic method of interesting primary classes 
and of cultivating the perceptive faculties was also felt. In spite 
of fine speeches upon this subject, and of the scattered private efforts 
which were being made in its behalf, it seems to be true, that, as Mr. 
Calkins remarks, "Up to 1860, object teaching had died out in this 
country through the want of trained teachers." 

To Mr. E. A. Sheldon, of Oswego, New York, is due the honor of 
the first introduction and systematic application of the reformed 
methods in the public schools. While superintendent of the city 
schools of Oswego, he became more and more dissatisfied with the 
results of the methods generally pursued. He entered into corre- 
spondence with the best educators in the country; and visited the 
most noted schools for the purpose of finding out, not only their 
actual condition, but also what ideas were entertained by teachers in 
regard to reforms. While on a visit to the Normal and Training 
School of Toronto, in 1859, he first became acquainted with the 
publications of the Home and Colonial Society, of London. In these, 
especially in the works of Miss Mayo, he found systematically pre- 
sented many of the ideas which, in a fragmentary way, he had ad- 
vocated and endeavored to carry out. 

He at once procured the books and apparatus necessary to put the 
new methods in practice, and commenced a series of experiments, 
looking toward a reabzation of his highest ideals of education. Many 
were the difficulties encountered; for the methods were alike new to 
superintendent, teachers, and pupils ; and no one familiar with the 
system was at hand to direct or advise. The teachers met once a 
week to compare notes and report progress. The whole corps of 
teachers engaged in the work became, as they saw the results, more 
and more interested in the system. The Board of Education of the 
city of Oswego nobly seconded the efforts of Mr. Sheldon ; and, per- 
ceiving that the introduction of the new method would be greatly 
facilitated by the aid of an experienced teacher, they authorized him 
to apply to the Home and Colonial Society for a competent assistant. 
In response to this application Miss M. E. M. Jones came to Oswego 
and commenced her work on the first of May, 1861. 

An announcement was made that a few teachers besides those 
belonging to the Oswego schools would be admitted to the class; 
and upon the commencement of the work several persons were 
present to take advantage of the opportunity offered. Miss Jones 
continued her labors for nearly a year and a half, when she returned 
to England. Her work was the one thing needful to bring the new 



UNITED STATES. 243 

ideas ot education systematically before the American public. 
Though the methods which had been developed to meet the demands 
of the social system of Great Britain often needed modifications be- 
fore they could be adapted to the wants of our own schools, still, in 
the main, they were found to rest on true principles. 

Many of the teachers who, with Mr. Sheldon, had been studying 
and experimenting in this direction, became very enthusiastic over 
the results of their work, and the new ideas attracted the attention 
of thoughtful teachers throughout the country. At the close of Miss 
Jones' labors, there was a general demand for the continuance of the 
work, and a class was formed under the charge of those who had be- 
come familiar with its details. This class soon outgrew its local and 
temporary character, and a permanent school was organized. This 
shows how much good can be effected by the hearty cooperation of 
an active superintendent and his teachers ; and how many powers, 
often undeveloped, can be made available for the interest and benefit 
of schools. A method which appeals to the conviction and intelli- 
gence of the teachers will prevent them from acting merely as the 
parts of a machine, of whose construction and power they have no 
idea. But in order that the teachers may gain a clear insight into 
the nature of education and its means, there must be at first some 
one who is capable of giving the proper impulse and direction to the 
work by contributing to it the results of previous experience. With- 
out this aid a movement of reform would partake of the character of 
an experiment, and might lead into dangerous paths. When viewed 
in this light, the work of Miss Jones and of those who supplied the 
means for the initiation of better methods will find its due apprecia- 
tion. 

From the effect produced by the new method on pupils and teach- 
ers, Mr. Sheldon came to the conclusion that its adoption into the 
schools of this country was a matter of vast importance. As a neces- 
sary preparation for this end, he issued, in December, 1861, an invi- 
tation to some leading educators of different States to come to Oswego 
and observe the practical working of the method. This invitation 
was cordially responded to ; and the presence of such men as W. F. 
Phelps, D. H. Cochran, David N. Camp, Thomas F. Harrison, H. B. 
Wilbur, W. Nicoll, and George L. Farnham, who constituted the 
committee of examination, Avas a sufficient guarantee that the mat- 
ter would be conducted in a fair and impartial spirit. 

Mr. Sheldon's address to the members of the committee shows 
that, instead of boasting of the great results already obtained, he im- 
plored them to give their earnest attention, and, if possible, a helping 



244 PESTALOZZI. 

hand to a cause which was of so great importance: "For mo v e than 
eight years we have been striving to improve our schools, and, when 
we compare them with what they were at the time of their organiza- 
tion, we feel that a decided progress has been made ; but never have 
their deficiencies been so apparent as at the present moment. What- 
ever the improvement, it certainly has not kept pace with our ideas 
of what it ought to be. 

" We have asked you here to examine a system of instruction 
which we have been endeavoring "to incorporate into our schools, for 
the origin of which we claim no credit ; neither do we claim that the 
principles of this system are new in this country. For years they have 
been quietly and almost imperceptibly creeping into our educational 
theories ; and have, although in an isolated and disjointed manner, 
made their way into our best schools. Good teachers every-where 
are working more or less in accordance with these principles — modi- 
fied perhaps in some degree — and are thus preparing the way for a 
system of primary education, of which they constitute the very web 
mid woof. It is this feature which we claim as new in this country. 
We have never had any system of primary education based on sound 
philosophical principles, and practically carried out in a definite and 
well arranged curriculum. Whether such is the system to which we 
now call your attention, Ave leave you to judge ; it is for this pur- 
pose we have presumed to invite you here to-day. Should your 
judgment, after a careful investigation, accord with our own, it can 
but lead to a complete revolution in our methods of teaching : it will 
make teaching a profession, a title which it has yet to earn." • 

It would lead too far to enter into a minute report of the lessons 
observed by the committee. It was, however, clearly demonstrated 
that the children could observe, think, imagine, judge, and reason 
without the help of books; and that the language used expressed the 
thoughts and feelings of the children, much better than the stiff and 
often unintelligible words and phrases of a memorized recitation. 

We append the two closing resolutions of the report of the com- 
mittee : 

"Resolved, That in the opinion of your committee the system of Ob- 
ject Teaching is admirably adapted to cultivate the perceptive facul- 
ties of the child, t<> furnish him with clear conceptions and the power 
of accurate expression, and thus to prepare him for the prosecution 
of the sciences or the pursuits of active life ; and that the committee 
do recommend the adoption of the system in whole or in part, where- 
ever such introduction is practicable. 

"Resolved, That this system of primary education, which in a great 



UNITED STATES. 245 

measure substitutes the teacher for the book, demands of the teachers 
varied knowledge and thorough culture ; and that attempts to intro- 
duce it by those who do not clearly comprehend its principles, and' 
who are not trained in its methods, can result only in failure." 

The very timely and judicious warning, expressed in the last reso- 
lution, ought to stimulate the managers of Normal Schools to exercise 
great care in the selection of their pupils, giving more attention to 
their moral character, and to their ability to acquire knowledge and 
impart it to others, than to the number of facts memorized. 

A great and important object, however, had been obtained by 
means of this convention : it caused the work of reform to step out 
of its obscurity and obtain the encouragement it so richly deserved. 
Hon. V. E. Rice, State Superintendent of Public Instruction — whose 
friendly interest and assistance for the Oswego school must be grate- 
fully recorded — obtained from the State Legislature, in 1863, a 
grant of $3,000 per annum toward its support. This appropriation 
was afterward greatly increased, and, in 1865, the Oswego Train- 
ing School was placed under the control of the State Superintend- 
ent and a Local Board, and thus became a State Institution. 

This school became widely known — pupils coming from more than 
half the states of the Union — and as the number increased, the 
course of study was, from time to time, enlarged and modified, until 
the present curriculum was adopted, embracing three departments — 
Elementary, Advanced, and Classical. The graduates from each of 
these are required to spend one term of twenty weeks in teaching 
under competent critics. 

This was the first Normal School in the country where the object 
lessons were made a distinctive feature, and where the pupils were 
required to put in practice what they had theoretically learned. 
Model Schools in which pupils observed the work done by competent 
teachers have been more or less connected with Normal Schools ; but 
it w r as in Oswego that a regular and severe course of practice under 
the constant supervision of a critic teacher was first made an integrant 
part of the school course. The experience obtained during a whole 
term of hard work is calculated to produce excellent teachers, who 
are conscious of the importance of the task, and have a knowledge 
of the means by which the faculties of the mind may be successfully 
cultivated. 

Good teachers who graduate from a Training School are always its 
best advertisers, because they recommend it by their work. Shall 
Ave wonder that the Oswego school reaped the full benefit of this, 
and that pupils came from all parts of the Union ? The annual re- 



246 pestat-ozzi. 

ports of Mr. Sheldon, and a Manual, which showed the prmeinal 
means used for the development and illustration of the elementarv 
branches, also aided in the dissemination of its methods and prin- 
ciples. 

The great reputation and marked success of this school could not 
fail to produce opposition ; but the attacks which it has received from 
time to time have only more widely disseminated the great principles 
upon which it was founded. The ill-concealed envy of some and the 
influence of local matters may have caused a temporary ripple, hut 
have had no more power to stem the advancing tide of sound educa- 
tional principles than a pebble to stop a mighty river in its course. 
Public opposition became gradually silenced, not so much by the 
arguments of those who refused to make temporary errors in the 
application of a method sufficient cause for its condemnation, as by 
the logic of events. 

The establishment of this school has given a great impetus to the 
cause of education in this country. The possibility of establishing 
teaching upon a scientific basis having been practically demonstrated, 
the organization of a large number of similar schools in different 
parts of the country speedily followed. The Fredonia Normal School 
took nearly its entire corps of teachers from Oswego, Dr. Armstrong, 
the principal, having been teacher there. The Normal Schools of 
Brockport, Potsdam, Geneseo, Buffalo, and Courtland have been or- 
ganized on the same plan, and each has employed one or more grad- 
uates of the Oswego school. The great West, at a comparatively 
early period, sent urgent calls for teachers capable of introducing 
these methods into their training schools. Graduates have gone 
to the State Schools in San Francisco and San Jose, California; 
Mankato, Winona, and St. Cloud, Minnesota; Leavenworth, Kansas; 
Kirksville and Warrensburg, Missouri; Terre Haute and Indianap- 
olis, Indiana ; Iowa City, Iowa ; Peru, Nebraska ; Trenton, New Jer- 
sey, and others; and also to the Training Schools of Boston and 
Worcester, Massachusetts; Cincinnati, Ohio; Indianapolis, Indiana; 
New York, New York ; Davenport, Iowa ; Lewiston, Maine ; and 
many other cities. This Institution is also represented in many 
schools not strictly connected with the training of teachers, yet the 
outgrowth of some progressive idea: these we find scattered from 
north to south — from the eastern portions of Maine to the Sandwich 
Islands. The graduates of the Oswego school have thus become 
missionaries, carrying the fundamental principles of Pestalozzi into 
every part of this land. 

In tracing the history of Mr. Sheldon in connection with his school, 



UNITED STATES. 



247 



Wi *md many incidents which forcibly remind us of similar events in 
Pestalozzi's experience. In both we find the same abiding faith ; n 
principles, which ultimately overcomes all obstacles; the same zeal 
.•aid perseverance in attaining their objects, and both have had faith- 
ful and efficient supporters. May the mistakes which darkened the 
last hours of Pestalozzi never be repeated in this school, to which so 
many of its graduates look with fond recollection and gratitude ! 

There are many obstacles to a full realization of the ideas which 
all our Pestalozzian schools seek to embody. The pupils applying for 
admission have generally been instructed according to the old system, 
and are little prepared to enter at once upon the new. Much time 
is consequently lost in the preliminary work of fitting them for the 
reception of the new philosophy of education. There is also a desire . 
on the part of most pupils to arrive at the highest results in the least 
possible time, producing an impatience in regard to processes, an un- 
natural strain upon the nervous system and mental powers, and a 
habit of superficiality in the examination of subjects. To a greater 
or less extent the public sympathize in this desire for quick results ; 
and the schools are obliged, in some measure, to recognize this senti- 
ment in the arrangement of courses of study. We need time to re- 
move these obstacles,— time to establish a standard that shall be 
higher and broader than the one which now measures education,— we 
need time to bring the whole organic life of the people into unison 
with the conditions requisite to true progress. 

In conclusion we would say, that, in this brief history of Pesta- 
lozzi and the educational movement which he inaugurated, we have 
endeavored to be strictly just and impartial. We have gratefully 
recognized the value of the ideas of the great reformer, and their 
service to humanity; but we have nowhere considered him or his 
sayings as infallible authority upon any subject. We regard with 
profound admiration his keen insight into the very soul of childhood, 
his loyal adherence to that which he believed to be true, and the sac- 
rifice of ease and comfort which he made for the benefit of the poor 
and destitute ; but for the principles which he sought to establish, 
and for the plans carried out in his school, we ask the closest scrutiny 
and the most rigid criticism. Through careful examination alone 
can the value of his system be fully realized. We ask only one favor 
in his behalf: let his work be judged rather by the great principles 
which he established, than by the first crude experiments by which 
he endeavored to put them in practice. 

A clear distinction should always be made between educational prin- 
ciples and educational means. The principles are eternal, and are the 



248 PESTALOZZI. 

seed which unfolds into living and beautiful forms in accordance with 
fixed and immutable laws : the means are the plow which prepares the 
ground for the development of the seed and for the nutrition of the 
plant. In the course of time, this plow must undergo important 
changes to conform to the intelligence of the age in which it is used. 
The mind of the child is the field to be tilled, and the teacher is the 
laborer who directs the process, not in the spirit of self-will, but in 
strict conformity and obedience to the laws of God. The perfect 
harvest is the blossom and fruitage of noble character. 

With this exalted view of the nature and aims of education, the 
reader can readily determine how much the world owes to the phil- 
anthropic spirit and practical experiments of the great Swiss Re- 
former, Heinkich Pestalozzi. 



F rp 6 1903 



FEB 6 1903 



